MicroRNAs as Regulators of Host-virus Interactions
from Sassan Asgari and Christopher S. Sullivan in Insect Virology
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNA molecules that play a central role in the regulation of gene expression impacting many biological processes. These include development, cancer, apoptosis, immunity, and longevity. In addition, accumulating evidence suggest that miRNAs are likely to be involved in host-virus interactions by modulating expression levels of either defence genes or virus genes. Several groups of animal viruses, as well as insect viruses, encode miRNAs that are instrumental in virus biology, including replication, pathogenesis and latency. Of interest is the biogenesis of miRNAs, current approaches to the discovery of miRNAs, their mode of action and strategies for determining viral miRNA function.
Further reading: Insect Virology
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNA molecules that play a central role in the regulation of gene expression impacting many biological processes. These include development, cancer, apoptosis, immunity, and longevity. In addition, accumulating evidence suggest that miRNAs are likely to be involved in host-virus interactions by modulating expression levels of either defence genes or virus genes. Several groups of animal viruses, as well as insect viruses, encode miRNAs that are instrumental in virus biology, including replication, pathogenesis and latency. Of interest is the biogenesis of miRNAs, current approaches to the discovery of miRNAs, their mode of action and strategies for determining viral miRNA function.
Further reading: Insect Virology
Ecology of Baculoviruses
from Jenny S. Cory in Insect Virology
Ecological studies involving insect viruses have centred on baculoviruses, partly because they are associated with population declines of some insect species, and also because they are highly pathogenic to insects, making them ideal candidates for pest control. Recent research has focussed on four main areas; (i) the influence of host condition on resistance to viral infection, (ii) the role and maintenance of baculovirus diversity, (iii) the prevalence of covert infections, and (iv) the elucidation of patterns of host resistance in field populations.
Tritrophic interactions, either via direct effects of plant secondary chemicals or through nutritionally mediated changes in host immunity, can have a significant impact on baculovirus efficacy. Variation within baculovirus populations appears to be ubiquitous, and mixed genotype infections apparently act to generate higher levels of pathogenicity. Covert infections are increasingly being shown to be common in field populations of Lepidoptera but their importance in generating overt baculovirus infections is still unclear. Field studies on forest insects indicate that host resistance varies with fluctuating host density and condition. Synthesis of the impacts of host condition on susceptibility, the role of genetic variability in infection, and of the relationship between overt and covert infection, will promote understanding of the ecological interactions between baculoviruses and natural host populations.
Further reading: Insect Virology
Ecological studies involving insect viruses have centred on baculoviruses, partly because they are associated with population declines of some insect species, and also because they are highly pathogenic to insects, making them ideal candidates for pest control. Recent research has focussed on four main areas; (i) the influence of host condition on resistance to viral infection, (ii) the role and maintenance of baculovirus diversity, (iii) the prevalence of covert infections, and (iv) the elucidation of patterns of host resistance in field populations.
Tritrophic interactions, either via direct effects of plant secondary chemicals or through nutritionally mediated changes in host immunity, can have a significant impact on baculovirus efficacy. Variation within baculovirus populations appears to be ubiquitous, and mixed genotype infections apparently act to generate higher levels of pathogenicity. Covert infections are increasingly being shown to be common in field populations of Lepidoptera but their importance in generating overt baculovirus infections is still unclear. Field studies on forest insects indicate that host resistance varies with fluctuating host density and condition. Synthesis of the impacts of host condition on susceptibility, the role of genetic variability in infection, and of the relationship between overt and covert infection, will promote understanding of the ecological interactions between baculoviruses and natural host populations.
Further reading: Insect Virology
Insect viruses
Category: Virology
from Insect Virology
Viruses that are pathogenic to beneficial insects and other arthropods cause millions of dollars of damage to industries such as sericulture, apiculture and aquaculture every year (eg infecting honeybees and silk worms). On the other hand, viruses that are pathogenic to insect pests can be exploited as attractive biological control agents. Another fascinating feature of these viruses is that some, for example baculoviruses, have been commercially exploited for use as gene expression and delivery vectors in both insect and mammalian cells. All of these factors have led to an explosion in the amount of research into insect viruses in recent years generating impressive quantities of information on the molecular and cellular biology of these viruses.
Further reading: Insect Virology
Viruses that are pathogenic to beneficial insects and other arthropods cause millions of dollars of damage to industries such as sericulture, apiculture and aquaculture every year (eg infecting honeybees and silk worms). On the other hand, viruses that are pathogenic to insect pests can be exploited as attractive biological control agents. Another fascinating feature of these viruses is that some, for example baculoviruses, have been commercially exploited for use as gene expression and delivery vectors in both insect and mammalian cells. All of these factors have led to an explosion in the amount of research into insect viruses in recent years generating impressive quantities of information on the molecular and cellular biology of these viruses.
Further reading: Insect Virology
Insect virology
Category: Virology
Sassan Asgari and Karyn N. Johnson (The University of Queensland, Australia) present a new book on Insect Virology
Virus groups covered include: Ascoviruses, Baculoviruses, Densoviruses, Entomopoxviruses, Hytrosaviruses, Iridoviruses, Nudiviruses, Polydnaviruses, Dicistroviruses, Iflaviruses, Nodaviruses, Tetraviruses and Cypoviruses. Several special topics chapters review current developments in insect virology including RNAi, insect antiviral responses, structural comparison of insect RNA viruses, and viral ecology read more ...
Virus groups covered include: Ascoviruses, Baculoviruses, Densoviruses, Entomopoxviruses, Hytrosaviruses, Iridoviruses, Nudiviruses, Polydnaviruses, Dicistroviruses, Iflaviruses, Nodaviruses, Tetraviruses and Cypoviruses. Several special topics chapters review current developments in insect virology including RNAi, insect antiviral responses, structural comparison of insect RNA viruses, and viral ecology read more ...
 | Edited by: Sassan Asgari and Karyn N. Johnson ISBN: 978-1-904455-71-4 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: September 2010 Cover: Hardback |
Influenza book review
Category: Book Review
I am pleased to provide the following excerpt from a book review of Influenza: Molecular Virology:
"This is a good quality, concise book on the basic nature of influenza viruses that comprehensively covers the current work on influenza." from Rebecca T. Horvat (University of Kansas Medical Center) writing in Doodys read more ...
"This is a good quality, concise book on the basic nature of influenza viruses that comprehensively covers the current work on influenza." from Rebecca T. Horvat (University of Kansas Medical Center) writing in Doodys read more ...
 | Edited by: Qinghua Wang and Yizhi Jane Tao ISBN: 978-1-904455-57-8 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: February 2010 Cover: Hardback |
Thiol-based sensory factors
Category: Regulation | Gene Expression
from Haike Antelmann and Peter Zuber in Sensory Mechanisms in Bacteria: Molecular Aspects of Signal Recognition
Bacteria regularly encounter Reactive Oxygen, Nitrogen and Electrophilic Species (ROS, RNS, RES) that are generated inside the cells by incomplete reduction of molecular oxygen, imbalanced metabolic processes or applied externally by toxic or antimicrobial compounds. The response to such reactive agents is mediated by redox-sensitive transcription factors that exploit the unique chemistry of cysteine thiol groups. Redox-sensitive regulatory proteins bear cysteine residues that can undergo post-translational modification, leading to either activation or inactivation of the transcription factors. This in turn results in responses that are aimed to detoxify the reactive species or alleviate the damage they cause. Different thiol-modifications are implicated in redox-sensing depending on the number of redox-active Cys residues and their reactivity, the oxidant to which they react, and the prevailing in vitro or in vivo conditions. Redox-sensitive proteins with more than one reactive Cys residue undergo in most cases reversible inter- and/or intramolecular disulfide linkages, which serve as sensing mechanisms for OxyR, the 2-Cys OhrR family, MexR, OspR, Spx, CprK and CrtJ. In contrast to these classical thiol-disulfide-switches, transcription factors with one redox-active Cys residue are reversibly regulated via initial sulphenic acid formation, S-thiolation with low molecular weight (LMW) thiols and sulfenamide formation with the backbone amide as shown for OxyR, the 1-Cys OhrR ortholog, MgrA and SarZ. However, the thiol group of the 1-Cys OhrR protein can also be irreversibly modified by overoxidation to sulfinic and sulfonic acids in response to strong oxidants. RES such as quinones were shown to modify the YodB repressor irreversibly by thiol-(S)-alkylation. In addition to redox-sensing transcription factors, LMW thiols and the thioredoxin/thioredoxin reductase system maintain the thiol-redox-balance of the cell upon exposure to reactive species. Here we review (1) enzymatic redox control mechanisms by thiol-disulfide reductases and (2) the current knowledge of bacterial redox-sensitive transcription factors that function without metal cofactors, including OxyR, OhrR, MexR, OspR, MgrA, SarZ, YodB, Spx, CprK and PspR/CrtJ. Each of these transcription factors senses unique signals including ROS, RNS, RES, antibiotic and haloorganic compounds, or the cellular oxygen level and light that are transduced via diverse redox-sensing mechanisms involving different reversible and irreversible thiol-modifications.
Further reading: Sensory Mechanisms in Bacteria: Molecular Aspects of Signal Recognition
Bacteria regularly encounter Reactive Oxygen, Nitrogen and Electrophilic Species (ROS, RNS, RES) that are generated inside the cells by incomplete reduction of molecular oxygen, imbalanced metabolic processes or applied externally by toxic or antimicrobial compounds. The response to such reactive agents is mediated by redox-sensitive transcription factors that exploit the unique chemistry of cysteine thiol groups. Redox-sensitive regulatory proteins bear cysteine residues that can undergo post-translational modification, leading to either activation or inactivation of the transcription factors. This in turn results in responses that are aimed to detoxify the reactive species or alleviate the damage they cause. Different thiol-modifications are implicated in redox-sensing depending on the number of redox-active Cys residues and their reactivity, the oxidant to which they react, and the prevailing in vitro or in vivo conditions. Redox-sensitive proteins with more than one reactive Cys residue undergo in most cases reversible inter- and/or intramolecular disulfide linkages, which serve as sensing mechanisms for OxyR, the 2-Cys OhrR family, MexR, OspR, Spx, CprK and CrtJ. In contrast to these classical thiol-disulfide-switches, transcription factors with one redox-active Cys residue are reversibly regulated via initial sulphenic acid formation, S-thiolation with low molecular weight (LMW) thiols and sulfenamide formation with the backbone amide as shown for OxyR, the 1-Cys OhrR ortholog, MgrA and SarZ. However, the thiol group of the 1-Cys OhrR protein can also be irreversibly modified by overoxidation to sulfinic and sulfonic acids in response to strong oxidants. RES such as quinones were shown to modify the YodB repressor irreversibly by thiol-(S)-alkylation. In addition to redox-sensing transcription factors, LMW thiols and the thioredoxin/thioredoxin reductase system maintain the thiol-redox-balance of the cell upon exposure to reactive species. Here we review (1) enzymatic redox control mechanisms by thiol-disulfide reductases and (2) the current knowledge of bacterial redox-sensitive transcription factors that function without metal cofactors, including OxyR, OhrR, MexR, OspR, MgrA, SarZ, YodB, Spx, CprK and PspR/CrtJ. Each of these transcription factors senses unique signals including ROS, RNS, RES, antibiotic and haloorganic compounds, or the cellular oxygen level and light that are transduced via diverse redox-sensing mechanisms involving different reversible and irreversible thiol-modifications.
Further reading: Sensory Mechanisms in Bacteria: Molecular Aspects of Signal Recognition
Sensory Mechanisms in Bacteria
from Sensory Mechanisms in Bacteria: Molecular Aspects of Signal Recognition
Bacteria have evolved extraordinary abilities to detect physical and chemical signals, both within their own cells and in the extracellular environment. The interaction of a signal with its receptor (usually a protein or RNA molecule) triggers a series of events that lead to reprogramming of cellular physiology, typically as a consequence of altered patterns of gene expression. In this way, the bacterial cell is able to mount appropriate and effective responses to changing physical and/or chemical environments. The versatility with which many bacteria adapt to environmental change underlies many important aspects of microbiology. For example, pathogens encounter multiple environments as they invade a host from the outside, and then progress through different sites within host tissues. There is growing evidence that pathogenic bacteria make use of physical and chemical cues to signal their presence in a suitable host, and need to adapt to the host environment in order to mount a successful infection. On the other hand, it should not be assumed that all signals to which bacteria must respond originate in the extracellular environment. For many species, even the cosseted life in a laboratory shake flask is 'stressful', in the sense that there is often a need to avoid or reverse the effects of harmful intermediates or by-products of metabolism. For example, all organisms that use dioxygen as a terminal electron acceptor have to deal with the reactive oxygen species that arise as adventitious by-products of aerobic metabolism. In bacteria, multiple protein receptors for oxygen radicals have been described, which control the expression of genes encoding enzymes that detoxify oxygen radicals or repair the damage that they cause.
Further reading: Sensory Mechanisms in Bacteria: Molecular Aspects of Signal Recognition
Bacteria have evolved extraordinary abilities to detect physical and chemical signals, both within their own cells and in the extracellular environment. The interaction of a signal with its receptor (usually a protein or RNA molecule) triggers a series of events that lead to reprogramming of cellular physiology, typically as a consequence of altered patterns of gene expression. In this way, the bacterial cell is able to mount appropriate and effective responses to changing physical and/or chemical environments. The versatility with which many bacteria adapt to environmental change underlies many important aspects of microbiology. For example, pathogens encounter multiple environments as they invade a host from the outside, and then progress through different sites within host tissues. There is growing evidence that pathogenic bacteria make use of physical and chemical cues to signal their presence in a suitable host, and need to adapt to the host environment in order to mount a successful infection. On the other hand, it should not be assumed that all signals to which bacteria must respond originate in the extracellular environment. For many species, even the cosseted life in a laboratory shake flask is 'stressful', in the sense that there is often a need to avoid or reverse the effects of harmful intermediates or by-products of metabolism. For example, all organisms that use dioxygen as a terminal electron acceptor have to deal with the reactive oxygen species that arise as adventitious by-products of aerobic metabolism. In bacteria, multiple protein receptors for oxygen radicals have been described, which control the expression of genes encoding enzymes that detoxify oxygen radicals or repair the damage that they cause.
Further reading: Sensory Mechanisms in Bacteria: Molecular Aspects of Signal Recognition
Signal Recognition Book
Stephen Spiro and Ray Dixon (Texas, USA and Norwich,UK; respectively) present a new publication Sensory Mechanisms in Bacteria: Molecular Aspects of Signal Recognition
This book reviews a selection of important model systems, providing a timely snapshot of the current state of research in the field. The book opens with an introductory chapter that reviews the diversity of signal recognition mechanisms, illustrating the breadth of the field. Subsequent chapters include descriptions of the sensing of ligands (alpha-ketoglutarate, adenylate energy charge, glutamine and xenobiotic compounds), chemoreceptors, iron-sulfur cluster-based sensors, metal-dependent and metal-responsive sensors, thiol-based sensors, and PDZ domains as sensors of other proteins read more ....
This book reviews a selection of important model systems, providing a timely snapshot of the current state of research in the field. The book opens with an introductory chapter that reviews the diversity of signal recognition mechanisms, illustrating the breadth of the field. Subsequent chapters include descriptions of the sensing of ligands (alpha-ketoglutarate, adenylate energy charge, glutamine and xenobiotic compounds), chemoreceptors, iron-sulfur cluster-based sensors, metal-dependent and metal-responsive sensors, thiol-based sensors, and PDZ domains as sensors of other proteins read more ....
 | Edited by: Stephen Spiro and Ray Dixon ISBN: 978-1-904455-69-1 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: September 2010 Cover: Hardback |
Probiotic properties of bifidobacteria
Category: Bacteria
from Maddalena Rossi and Alberto Amaretti in Bifidobacteria: Genomics and Molecular Aspects
Bifidobacteria are major components of the indigenous bacterial population present in the human gut and are arguably most relevant to the health-promoting properties that have been attributed to elements of this microbiota. They exert a range of beneficial health effects, including the regulation of intestinal microbial homeostasis, the inhibition of pathogens and harmful bacteria that colonize and/or infect the gut mucosa, the modulation of local and systemic immune responses, the repression of procarcinogenic enzymatic activities within the microbiota, the production of vitamins, and the bioconversion of a number of dietary compounds into bioactive molecules. Health-promoting properties of members of the genus Bifidobacterium have been reported but research is still necessary for an in depth understanding of the probiotic function. In fact, although experimental evidence of the probiotic effectiveness of bifidobacteria has a long history, little information is available on the molecular mechanisms underlying the health-promoting claims, especially on such complex phenomena as anticarcinogenic and anti-inflammatory effects.
Further reading:
Bifidobacteria are major components of the indigenous bacterial population present in the human gut and are arguably most relevant to the health-promoting properties that have been attributed to elements of this microbiota. They exert a range of beneficial health effects, including the regulation of intestinal microbial homeostasis, the inhibition of pathogens and harmful bacteria that colonize and/or infect the gut mucosa, the modulation of local and systemic immune responses, the repression of procarcinogenic enzymatic activities within the microbiota, the production of vitamins, and the bioconversion of a number of dietary compounds into bioactive molecules. Health-promoting properties of members of the genus Bifidobacterium have been reported but research is still necessary for an in depth understanding of the probiotic function. In fact, although experimental evidence of the probiotic effectiveness of bifidobacteria has a long history, little information is available on the molecular mechanisms underlying the health-promoting claims, especially on such complex phenomena as anticarcinogenic and anti-inflammatory effects.
Further reading:
Metabolism of bifidobacteria
Category: Bacteria
from David A. Sela, Neil P. J Price and David A. Mills in Bifidobacteria: Genomics and Molecular Aspects
The genus Bifidobacterium possesses a unique fructose-6-phosphate phosphoketolase pathway employed to ferment carbohydrates. Much metabolic research on bifidobacteria has focused on oligosaccharide metabolism as these carbohydrate polymers are available in their otherwise nutrient-limited habitats. Interestingly, infant-associated bifidobacterial phylotypes appear to have evolved the ability to ferment milk oligosaccharides, whereas adult-associated species utilize plant oligosaccharides, consistent with what they encounter in their respective environments. As breast-fed infants often harbor bifidobacteria dominated gut consortia, there have been numerous applications to mimic the bifidogenic properties of milk oligosaccharides. These are broadly classified as plant-derived fructo-oligosaccharides or dairy-derived galacto-oligosaccharides, which are differentially metabolized and distinct from milk oligosaccharide catabolism.
Further reading:
The genus Bifidobacterium possesses a unique fructose-6-phosphate phosphoketolase pathway employed to ferment carbohydrates. Much metabolic research on bifidobacteria has focused on oligosaccharide metabolism as these carbohydrate polymers are available in their otherwise nutrient-limited habitats. Interestingly, infant-associated bifidobacterial phylotypes appear to have evolved the ability to ferment milk oligosaccharides, whereas adult-associated species utilize plant oligosaccharides, consistent with what they encounter in their respective environments. As breast-fed infants often harbor bifidobacteria dominated gut consortia, there have been numerous applications to mimic the bifidogenic properties of milk oligosaccharides. These are broadly classified as plant-derived fructo-oligosaccharides or dairy-derived galacto-oligosaccharides, which are differentially metabolized and distinct from milk oligosaccharide catabolism.
Further reading:
Genomics of Bifidobacteria
Category: Bacteria
from Marco Ventura, Francesca Turroni, Francesca Bottacini and Douwe van Sinderen in Bifidobacteria: Genomics and Molecular Aspects
During recent years microbiological research has been fundamentally changed by the ever increasing number of publicly available bacterial whole-genome sequences. This sequence information has largely affected our understanding of the metabolic capabilities, genetics and phylogeny of bacteria. Bifidobacteria constitute one of the key microbial groups of the human intestinal microbiota, due to their perceived positive contribution to maintain a balanced gut homeostasis. In recent years bifidobacteria have drawn much scientific attention because of their use as live bacteria in numerous food preparations with several health-related claims. For this reason these bifidobacteria represent a developing area of scientific interest with respect to genomics, molecular biology, genetics and physiology. Recent genome sequencing of different bifidobacterial species has provided the complete genetic make-up of these bacteria.
Further reading:
During recent years microbiological research has been fundamentally changed by the ever increasing number of publicly available bacterial whole-genome sequences. This sequence information has largely affected our understanding of the metabolic capabilities, genetics and phylogeny of bacteria. Bifidobacteria constitute one of the key microbial groups of the human intestinal microbiota, due to their perceived positive contribution to maintain a balanced gut homeostasis. In recent years bifidobacteria have drawn much scientific attention because of their use as live bacteria in numerous food preparations with several health-related claims. For this reason these bifidobacteria represent a developing area of scientific interest with respect to genomics, molecular biology, genetics and physiology. Recent genome sequencing of different bifidobacterial species has provided the complete genetic make-up of these bacteria.
Further reading:
Bifidobacteria
Category: Bacteria
from Bifidobacteria: Genomics and Molecular Aspects
Bifidobacteria are Gram-positive anaerobic bacteria, found naturally in the gut of humans and other mammals. They are widely used as probiotic organisms in a vast array of formulations for the prevention, alleviation and treatment of many intestinal disorders. However bifidobacteria are fastidious microorganisms and difficult to study in the laboratory, so until recently, understanding of their genetics lagged behind that of other high GC content Gram-positive bacteria. The application of modern whole genome approaches to bifidobacteria research has changed all of this, permitting the accumulation of an impressive amount of data, something that could not have been foreseen a few years ago.
Among the myriad of bacterial species that inhabit the human gut and the gut of many animals, bifidobacteria are almost certainly the microbial group that has the greatest effect on the health of the host. In most people, bifidobacteria are present in high numbers (108-109 cells/g of intestinal content) throughout their lives, although each individual permanently harbours only several species or specific biotypes. Apart from lactobacilli, bifidobacteria is the only intestinal microbial group that is generally recognized to possess such positive characteristics through its capacity to produce short chain fatty acids, vitamins, bacteriocins and antibiotic-like substances, and of exerting immunomodulating and immunostimulating activities. Moreover, the bifidobacterial species so far identified lack enzyme urease, azo- and nitro-reductase, beta-glucuronidase and alpha-dehydrolase that exert enzymatic and metabolic effects that are perceived to be toxic to the host. Consequently, bifidobacteria can be considered as valuable probiotics and today they are not only used in the food industry to relieve and treat many intestinal disorders, but they are increasingly attracting the scientific interest of clinicians and researchers.
Further reading:
Bifidobacteria are Gram-positive anaerobic bacteria, found naturally in the gut of humans and other mammals. They are widely used as probiotic organisms in a vast array of formulations for the prevention, alleviation and treatment of many intestinal disorders. However bifidobacteria are fastidious microorganisms and difficult to study in the laboratory, so until recently, understanding of their genetics lagged behind that of other high GC content Gram-positive bacteria. The application of modern whole genome approaches to bifidobacteria research has changed all of this, permitting the accumulation of an impressive amount of data, something that could not have been foreseen a few years ago.
Among the myriad of bacterial species that inhabit the human gut and the gut of many animals, bifidobacteria are almost certainly the microbial group that has the greatest effect on the health of the host. In most people, bifidobacteria are present in high numbers (108-109 cells/g of intestinal content) throughout their lives, although each individual permanently harbours only several species or specific biotypes. Apart from lactobacilli, bifidobacteria is the only intestinal microbial group that is generally recognized to possess such positive characteristics through its capacity to produce short chain fatty acids, vitamins, bacteriocins and antibiotic-like substances, and of exerting immunomodulating and immunostimulating activities. Moreover, the bifidobacterial species so far identified lack enzyme urease, azo- and nitro-reductase, beta-glucuronidase and alpha-dehydrolase that exert enzymatic and metabolic effects that are perceived to be toxic to the host. Consequently, bifidobacteria can be considered as valuable probiotics and today they are not only used in the food industry to relieve and treat many intestinal disorders, but they are increasingly attracting the scientific interest of clinicians and researchers.
Further reading:
Bifidobacteria book
Baltasar Mayo and Douwe van Sinderen (Asturias, Spain and Cork, Ireland; respectively) present a new publication Bifidobacteria: Genomics and Molecular Aspects
This book brings together the expertise and enthusiasm of leading bifidobacteria experts from around the world to provide a state-of-the art overview of the molecular biology and genomics of this important microbial genus. Topics include: ecology, genomics, comparative genomics, metabolism, acid and bile resistance, stress response, probiotic properties, antimicrobial activity, interaction with the intestinal mucosa, safety assessment of bifidobacteria, synthesis and utilization of exopolysaccharides and prebiotics, antibiotic resistance/susceptibility profiles, viability and stability in commercial preparations, mobile genetic elements, cloning vectors and genetic manipulation of bifidobacteria read more ...
This book brings together the expertise and enthusiasm of leading bifidobacteria experts from around the world to provide a state-of-the art overview of the molecular biology and genomics of this important microbial genus. Topics include: ecology, genomics, comparative genomics, metabolism, acid and bile resistance, stress response, probiotic properties, antimicrobial activity, interaction with the intestinal mucosa, safety assessment of bifidobacteria, synthesis and utilization of exopolysaccharides and prebiotics, antibiotic resistance/susceptibility profiles, viability and stability in commercial preparations, mobile genetic elements, cloning vectors and genetic manipulation of bifidobacteria read more ...
 | Edited by: Baltasar Mayo and Douwe van Sinderen ISBN: 978-1-904455-68-4 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: August 2010 Cover: Hardback |
Detection of Viable Organisms Using Molecular Techniques
from Paul A. Rochelle, Anne K. Camper, Andreas Nocker and Mark Burr in Environmental Microbiology: Current Technology and Water Applications
The ultimate measure of microbial viability and biological activity is growth in some form of culture system. Unfortunately, due to many limitations, growth is usually not the most sensitive or rapid detection method. Many molecular-based tools are available for assessing viability and functional gene expression, and have applications for specific microbes in environmental samples. Methods include fluorescent nucleic acid binding dyes, enzymatic conversion of substrates to fluorescent compounds (often in conjunction with nucleic acid-based methods), various techniques based on amplification and detection of nucleic acids, nucleic acid amplification linked to biosensors and microarray detection platforms, detection and characterization of proteins, and molecular detection coupled with culturing.
Further reading:
The ultimate measure of microbial viability and biological activity is growth in some form of culture system. Unfortunately, due to many limitations, growth is usually not the most sensitive or rapid detection method. Many molecular-based tools are available for assessing viability and functional gene expression, and have applications for specific microbes in environmental samples. Methods include fluorescent nucleic acid binding dyes, enzymatic conversion of substrates to fluorescent compounds (often in conjunction with nucleic acid-based methods), various techniques based on amplification and detection of nucleic acids, nucleic acid amplification linked to biosensors and microarray detection platforms, detection and characterization of proteins, and molecular detection coupled with culturing.
Further reading:
Identity of Single Microbial Cells
from Daniel S. Read and Andrew S. Whiteley in Environmental Microbiology: Current Technology and Water Applications
Linking both identity and function within microbial communities has long been seen as essential for understanding the role that bacteria play in the environment. Techniques based on the study of single microbial cells offer a unique approach that provides information about heterogeneity within populations, and the role of spatial organization within the environment. Various single-cell techniques are currently in use for the study of microbial ecology, an important one being Raman spectroscopy. This technique can be used for studying different features of microbial systems. Raman spectroscopy can be used in combination with Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) and Stable Isotope Probing (SIP), which together can be utilized to gain an insight into the identity and function of single bacterial cells in situ.
Further reading:
Linking both identity and function within microbial communities has long been seen as essential for understanding the role that bacteria play in the environment. Techniques based on the study of single microbial cells offer a unique approach that provides information about heterogeneity within populations, and the role of spatial organization within the environment. Various single-cell techniques are currently in use for the study of microbial ecology, an important one being Raman spectroscopy. This technique can be used for studying different features of microbial systems. Raman spectroscopy can be used in combination with Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) and Stable Isotope Probing (SIP), which together can be utilized to gain an insight into the identity and function of single bacterial cells in situ.
Further reading:
Amoebae as a Tool
from Julia Lienard and Gilbert Greub in Environmental Microbiology: Current Technology and Water Applications
Obligate intracellular microorganisms are unculturable by classic axenic culture methods. As a result they have largely been overlooked, despite many being significant human and animal pathogens. Resistance of amoeba-resisting microorganisms (ARM) to amoebal destruction may predict ability to also resist mammalian macrophages, which are somehow similar to amoebae and represent one of the first cellular immune defenses in mammals. Thus, general approaches have been described for the growth of strict intracellular microorganisms, using amoebae as hosts in a cell culture system. Such an approach has been shown to be advantageous, since amoebal co-culture will selectively grow microorganisms that resist these professional phagocytes. An alternative approach for the isolation of novel ARM is also available, which requires the isolation of new amoebal strains by amoebal enrichment on a suitable prey (such as Escherichia coli), and then to search for intra-amoebal microorganisms within the isolated amoebae. Once new potentially pathogenic ARM has been isolated, one should then further assess the potential infectivity of these intracellular microorganisms. The application of macrophages, as an in vitro model to test microbial virulence is also possible.
Further reading:
Obligate intracellular microorganisms are unculturable by classic axenic culture methods. As a result they have largely been overlooked, despite many being significant human and animal pathogens. Resistance of amoeba-resisting microorganisms (ARM) to amoebal destruction may predict ability to also resist mammalian macrophages, which are somehow similar to amoebae and represent one of the first cellular immune defenses in mammals. Thus, general approaches have been described for the growth of strict intracellular microorganisms, using amoebae as hosts in a cell culture system. Such an approach has been shown to be advantageous, since amoebal co-culture will selectively grow microorganisms that resist these professional phagocytes. An alternative approach for the isolation of novel ARM is also available, which requires the isolation of new amoebal strains by amoebal enrichment on a suitable prey (such as Escherichia coli), and then to search for intra-amoebal microorganisms within the isolated amoebae. Once new potentially pathogenic ARM has been isolated, one should then further assess the potential infectivity of these intracellular microorganisms. The application of macrophages, as an in vitro model to test microbial virulence is also possible.
Further reading:
Detection of Pathogens in Water Using Microarrays
from Timothy M. Straub in Environmental Microbiology: Current Technology and Water Applications
For waterborne pathogen monitoring, regulatory agencies have traditionally focused on developing a single method for an existing or emerging pathogen in water supplies. However, the ability to use a single method to determine all potential pathogens or indicators in a water supply would be particularly advantageous. Such an approach has three major hurdles: 1) sensitive detection of highly dilute pathogens in a water supply, 2) specific detection of pathogens from non-pathogenic near-neighbors, and 3) multiplexed strategies that preserve the sensitivity and specificity of the assay.
Further reading:
For waterborne pathogen monitoring, regulatory agencies have traditionally focused on developing a single method for an existing or emerging pathogen in water supplies. However, the ability to use a single method to determine all potential pathogens or indicators in a water supply would be particularly advantageous. Such an approach has three major hurdles: 1) sensitive detection of highly dilute pathogens in a water supply, 2) specific detection of pathogens from non-pathogenic near-neighbors, and 3) multiplexed strategies that preserve the sensitivity and specificity of the assay.
Further reading:
Low Cost Screening of Multiple Waterborne Pathogens
from Seyrig et al in Environmental Microbiology: Current Technology and Water Applications
A vast array of low cost, simple, rugged, and rapid molecular approaches are emerging for the detection of indicators and pathogens, along with the collection of relevant genotypic information. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is a relatively new DNA amplification technique, which due to its simplicity, ruggedness, and low cost could provide major advantages to the water industry. In LAMP, the target sequence is amplified at a constant temperature using either two or three sets of primers and a polymerase with high strand displacement activity. Due to the specific nature of the action of these primers, the amount of DNA produced in LAMP is considerably higher than PCR based amplification. The corresponding release of pyrophosphate results in visible turbidity due to precipitation, which allows easy visualization by the naked eye, especially for larger reaction volumes or via simple detection approaches for smaller volumes. The reaction can be followed in real-time either by measuring the turbidity or the signals from DNA produced via fluorescent dyes that intercalate or directly label the DNA, and in turn can be correlated to the number of copies initially present. Hence, LAMP can also be quantitative. While LAMP is already the method of choice in organizations engaged in combating infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria, and sleeping sickness in developing regions, it has yet to be extensively validated for commonly known waterborne pathogens.
Further reading:
A vast array of low cost, simple, rugged, and rapid molecular approaches are emerging for the detection of indicators and pathogens, along with the collection of relevant genotypic information. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is a relatively new DNA amplification technique, which due to its simplicity, ruggedness, and low cost could provide major advantages to the water industry. In LAMP, the target sequence is amplified at a constant temperature using either two or three sets of primers and a polymerase with high strand displacement activity. Due to the specific nature of the action of these primers, the amount of DNA produced in LAMP is considerably higher than PCR based amplification. The corresponding release of pyrophosphate results in visible turbidity due to precipitation, which allows easy visualization by the naked eye, especially for larger reaction volumes or via simple detection approaches for smaller volumes. The reaction can be followed in real-time either by measuring the turbidity or the signals from DNA produced via fluorescent dyes that intercalate or directly label the DNA, and in turn can be correlated to the number of copies initially present. Hence, LAMP can also be quantitative. While LAMP is already the method of choice in organizations engaged in combating infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria, and sleeping sickness in developing regions, it has yet to be extensively validated for commonly known waterborne pathogens.
Further reading:
- Environmental Microbiology: Current Technology and Water Applications
- Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications
- Metagenomics: Theory, Methods and Applications
- Environmental Molecular Microbiology
Biosensors for the Detection of Waterborne Pathogens
Category: Environmental Microbiology | Technology
from Sen Xu and Raj Mutharasan in Environmental Microbiology: Current Technology and Water Applications
The detection of waterborne pathogens and toxins by biosensor-based methods are becoming increasingly important. Optical, electrochemical and electromechanical sensors are available and surface chemistries are being used for immobilizing biorecognition molecules on sensor surfaces. Topics that are important include representative sensor responses, limit of detections (LOD) and time to results (TTR).
Further reading:
The detection of waterborne pathogens and toxins by biosensor-based methods are becoming increasingly important. Optical, electrochemical and electromechanical sensors are available and surface chemistries are being used for immobilizing biorecognition molecules on sensor surfaces. Topics that are important include representative sensor responses, limit of detections (LOD) and time to results (TTR).
Further reading:
Detection of Microbes in Water
Category: Technology | Environmental Microbiology
from Keya Sen in Environmental Microbiology: Current Technology and Water Applications
Molecular techniques based on genomics, proteomics and transcriptomics are rapidly growing as complete microbial genome sequences are becoming available, and advances are made in sequencing technology, analytical biochemistry, microfluidics and data analysis. While the clinical and food industries are increasingly adapting these techniques, there appear to be major challenges in detecting health-related microbes in source and treated drinking waters. This is due in part to the low density of pathogens in water, necessitating significant processing of large volume samples. From the vast panorama of available molecular techniques, some are finding a place in the water industry: Quantitative PCR, protein detection and immunological approaches, loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), microarrays.
Further reading:
Molecular techniques based on genomics, proteomics and transcriptomics are rapidly growing as complete microbial genome sequences are becoming available, and advances are made in sequencing technology, analytical biochemistry, microfluidics and data analysis. While the clinical and food industries are increasingly adapting these techniques, there appear to be major challenges in detecting health-related microbes in source and treated drinking waters. This is due in part to the low density of pathogens in water, necessitating significant processing of large volume samples. From the vast panorama of available molecular techniques, some are finding a place in the water industry: Quantitative PCR, protein detection and immunological approaches, loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), microarrays.
Further reading:
Biofilms
Category: Environmental Microbiology
from "Nanozymes for Biofilm Removal" Melanie Richards and Thomas Eugene Cloete in Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications
Sessile communities of bacteria encased in extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) are known as biofilms and causes serious problems in various areas, amongst other, the medical industry, industrial water settings, paper industry and food processing industry. Although various methods of biofilm control exist, these methods are not without limitations and often fail to remove biofilms from surfaces. Biofilms often show reduced susceptibility to antimicrobials or chemicals and chemical by-products may be toxic to the environment, whereas mechanical methods may be labour intensive and expensive due to down-time required to clean the system.
Further reading:
Sessile communities of bacteria encased in extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) are known as biofilms and causes serious problems in various areas, amongst other, the medical industry, industrial water settings, paper industry and food processing industry. Although various methods of biofilm control exist, these methods are not without limitations and often fail to remove biofilms from surfaces. Biofilms often show reduced susceptibility to antimicrobials or chemicals and chemical by-products may be toxic to the environment, whereas mechanical methods may be labour intensive and expensive due to down-time required to clean the system.
Further reading:
Risk assessment of nanoparticles and nanomaterials
Category: Environmental Microbiology | Technology
from Michele de Kwaadsteniet and Thomas Eugene Cloete in Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications
The risk assessment of nanoparticles and nanomaterials is of key importance for the continous development in the already striving new field of nanotechnology. Humans are increasingly being exposed to nanoparticles and nanomaterials, placing stress on the development and validation of reproducible toxicity tests. Tests currently used include genotoxicity and cytotoxicity tests, and in vivo toxicity models. The unique characteristics of nanoparticles and nanomaterials are responsible for their toxicity and interaction with biological macromolecules within the human body. This may lead to the development of diseases and clinical disorders. A loss in cell viability and structure can also occur in exposed tissues as well as inflammation and granuloma formation. The future of nanotechnology depends on the responsible assessment of nanoparticles and nanomaterials.
Further reading: Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications
The risk assessment of nanoparticles and nanomaterials is of key importance for the continous development in the already striving new field of nanotechnology. Humans are increasingly being exposed to nanoparticles and nanomaterials, placing stress on the development and validation of reproducible toxicity tests. Tests currently used include genotoxicity and cytotoxicity tests, and in vivo toxicity models. The unique characteristics of nanoparticles and nanomaterials are responsible for their toxicity and interaction with biological macromolecules within the human body. This may lead to the development of diseases and clinical disorders. A loss in cell viability and structure can also occur in exposed tissues as well as inflammation and granuloma formation. The future of nanotechnology depends on the responsible assessment of nanoparticles and nanomaterials.
Further reading: Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications
Detection of Microbial Pathogens
Category: Technology | Pathogens
from Jacques Theron, Thomas Eugene Cloete and Michele de Kwaadsteniet in Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications
Detection of pathogens often involves time-consuming culture methods. Newer enzymatic, immunological and genetic methods are being developed to replace and/or support classical approaches to microbial detection. Innovations in nanotechnology and nanosciences are having a significant impact in biodiagnostics, where a number of nanoparticle-based assays and nanodevices have been introduced for biomolecular detection.
Waterborne disease is still a major cause of death in many parts of the world, particularly in young children, the elderly, or those with compromised immune systems. As the epidemiology of waterborne diseases is changing, there is a growing global public health concern about new and reemerging infectious diseases that are occurring through a complex interaction of social, economic, evolutionary, and ecological factors. An important challenge is therefore the rapid, specific and sensitive detection of waterborne pathogens.
Further reading: Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications
Detection of pathogens often involves time-consuming culture methods. Newer enzymatic, immunological and genetic methods are being developed to replace and/or support classical approaches to microbial detection. Innovations in nanotechnology and nanosciences are having a significant impact in biodiagnostics, where a number of nanoparticle-based assays and nanodevices have been introduced for biomolecular detection.
Waterborne disease is still a major cause of death in many parts of the world, particularly in young children, the elderly, or those with compromised immune systems. As the epidemiology of waterborne diseases is changing, there is a growing global public health concern about new and reemerging infectious diseases that are occurring through a complex interaction of social, economic, evolutionary, and ecological factors. An important challenge is therefore the rapid, specific and sensitive detection of waterborne pathogens.
Further reading: Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications
Nanotechnology and Water Microbiology
Category: Technology | Environmental Microbiology
Nanotechnology is the engineering and art of manipulating matter at the nanoscale (1-100 nm) level. Nanotechnology offers the potential of novel nanomaterials for the treatment of surface water, groundwater and wastewater contaminated by toxic metal ions, organic and inorganic solutes and microorganisms. At the present time many nanomaterials are under active research and development.
Further reading: Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications
Further reading: Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications
Biofilm Removal using Nanozymes
Category: Environmental Microbiology
from Melanie Richards and Thomas Eugene Cloete in Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications
Recently there has been a great interest in the enzymatic degradation of biofilms. Enzymes are highly selective and disrupt the structural stability of the biofilm EPS matrix. Various studies have focused on the enzymatic degradation of polysaccharides and proteins for biofilm detachment since these are the two dominant components of the EPS. Due to the structural role of proteins and polysaccharides in the EPS matrix, a combination of various proteases and polysaccharases may be successful in biofilm removal.
The biodegradability and low toxicity of enzymes also make them attractive biofilm control agents. Regardless of all the advantages associated with enzymes, they also suffer from various drawbacks given that they are relatively expensive, show insufficient stability or activity under certain conditions, and cannot be reused. Various approaches are being used to increase the stability of enzymes, including enzyme modification, enzyme immobilization, protein engineering and medium engineering. Although these conventional methods have been used frequently to improve the stability of enzymes, various new techniques, such as self-immobilization of enzymes, the immobilization of enzymes on nano-scale structures and the production of single-enzyme nanoparticles, have been developed.
Self-immobilization of enzymes entails the cross-linking of enzyme molecules with each other and yields final preparations consisting of essentially pure proteins and high concentrations of enzyme per unit volume. The activity, stability and efficiency of immobilized enzymes can be improved by reducing the size of the enzyme-carrier. Nano-scale carrier materials allow for high enzyme loading per unit mass, catalytic recycling and a reduced loss of enzyme activity. Furthermore, enzymes can be stabilized by producing single-enzyme nanoparticles consisting of single-enzyme molecules surrounded by a porous organic-inorganic network of less than a few nanometers thick.
All these new technologies of enzyme stabilization make enzymes even more attractive alternatives to other biofilm removal and control agents.
Further reading:
Recently there has been a great interest in the enzymatic degradation of biofilms. Enzymes are highly selective and disrupt the structural stability of the biofilm EPS matrix. Various studies have focused on the enzymatic degradation of polysaccharides and proteins for biofilm detachment since these are the two dominant components of the EPS. Due to the structural role of proteins and polysaccharides in the EPS matrix, a combination of various proteases and polysaccharases may be successful in biofilm removal.
The biodegradability and low toxicity of enzymes also make them attractive biofilm control agents. Regardless of all the advantages associated with enzymes, they also suffer from various drawbacks given that they are relatively expensive, show insufficient stability or activity under certain conditions, and cannot be reused. Various approaches are being used to increase the stability of enzymes, including enzyme modification, enzyme immobilization, protein engineering and medium engineering. Although these conventional methods have been used frequently to improve the stability of enzymes, various new techniques, such as self-immobilization of enzymes, the immobilization of enzymes on nano-scale structures and the production of single-enzyme nanoparticles, have been developed.
Self-immobilization of enzymes entails the cross-linking of enzyme molecules with each other and yields final preparations consisting of essentially pure proteins and high concentrations of enzyme per unit volume. The activity, stability and efficiency of immobilized enzymes can be improved by reducing the size of the enzyme-carrier. Nano-scale carrier materials allow for high enzyme loading per unit mass, catalytic recycling and a reduced loss of enzyme activity. Furthermore, enzymes can be stabilized by producing single-enzyme nanoparticles consisting of single-enzyme molecules surrounded by a porous organic-inorganic network of less than a few nanometers thick.
All these new technologies of enzyme stabilization make enzymes even more attractive alternatives to other biofilm removal and control agents.
Further reading:
EBV
A new publication on EBV: Epstein-Barr Virus: Latency and Transformation was published recently. In this book, expert EBV virologists comprehensively review this important subject from a genetic, biochemical, immunological, and cell biological perspective. Topics include: latent infections, EBV leader protein, EBNA-1 in viral DNA replication and persistence, EBNA-2 in transcription activation of viral and cellular genes, the nuclear antigen family 3 in regulation of cellular processes, molecular profiles of EBV latently infected cells, latent membrane protein 1 oncoprotein, regulation of latency by LMP2A, role of noncoding RNAs in EBV-induced cell growth and transformation and the regulation of EBV latency by viral lytic proteins. This book is essential reading for all EBV virologists as well as clinical and basic scientists working on oncogenic viruses read more ...
 | Edited by: Erle S. Robertson ISBN: 978-1-904455-62-2 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: April 2010 Cover: Hardback read more ... |
Molecular Phylogeny of Microorganisms
Aharon Oren and R. Thane Papke of The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel and the University of Connecticut, USA (respectively) present a new publication on microbial phylogeny: Molecular Phylogeny of Microorganisms. Leading scientists from around the world explore current concepts in molecular phylogeny and their application with respect to microorganisms. The authors describe the different approaches applied today to elucidate the molecular phylogeny of prokaryotes (and eukaryotic protists) and review current phylogenetic methods, techniques and software tools. Topics covered include: a historical overview, computational tools, multilocus sequence analysis, 16S rRNA phylogenetic trees, rooting of the universal tree of life, applications of conserved indels, lateral gene transfer, endosymbiosis and the evolution of plastids.
This book is an ideal introduction to molecular phylogeny for all microbiologists and is an essential review of current concepts for experts in the field. A recommended text for all microbiology laboratories read more ...
This book is an ideal introduction to molecular phylogeny for all microbiologists and is an essential review of current concepts for experts in the field. A recommended text for all microbiology laboratories read more ...
 | Edited by: Aharon Oren and R. Thane Papke ISBN: 978-1-904455-67-7 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: July 2010 Cover: Hardback read more ... |
Population genetics book
Category: Books
The new book on Microbial Population Genetics edited by Jianping Xu (McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada) has been published and is available for immediate dispatch read more ...
Anaerobic Parasitic Protozoa
Category: Books
The new book on Anaerobic Parasitic Protozoa edited by C. Graham Clark, Patricia J. Johnson and Rodney D. Adam was published this week read more ...
 | Edited by: C. Graham Clark, Patricia J. Johnson and Rodney D. Adam Published: 2010 ISBN: 978-1-904455-61-5 Price: GB £159 or US $310 In this book internationally acclaimed researchers critically review the most important aspects of research on anaerobic parasitic protozoa, providing the first coherent picture of their genomics and molecular biology since the publication of the genomes. Chapters are written from a molecular and genomic perspective and contain speculative models upon which future research efforts can be based. read more ... |
ABC Transporters book review
Category: Book Review
Excerpt from a book review that was published recently:
ABC Transporters in Microorganisms
ISBN: 978-1-904455-49-3
"very capably edited ... a comprehensive collection of color illustrations and relevant tables ... thorough and easy-to-read series of informative chapters written by experts ... The detail and insight provided as well as thorough referencing in each chapter suggest that this collection will be an excellent addition to most libraries in medical schools and research laboratories" from Joni Tillotson and Glenn S. Tillotson (Immaculata University, Malvern and ViroPharma Incorporated, Exton, PA, USA) writing in Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther. 8(4), 375-377 (2010) read more ...
ABC Transporters in Microorganisms
ISBN: 978-1-904455-49-3
"very capably edited ... a comprehensive collection of color illustrations and relevant tables ... thorough and easy-to-read series of informative chapters written by experts ... The detail and insight provided as well as thorough referencing in each chapter suggest that this collection will be an excellent addition to most libraries in medical schools and research laboratories" from Joni Tillotson and Glenn S. Tillotson (Immaculata University, Malvern and ViroPharma Incorporated, Exton, PA, USA) writing in Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther. 8(4), 375-377 (2010) read more ...
Aspergillus book review
Category: Book Review | Fungi
Excerpt from a book review that was published recently:
Aspergillus: Molecular Biology and Genomics
ISBN: 978-1-904455-53-0
"a thorough review of recent research in the genetics of Aspergillus ... It has information on Aspergillus species that is difficult to find in other sources." from Rebecca T. Horvat (University of Kansas Medical Center) writing in Doodys read more ...
Aspergillus: Molecular Biology and Genomics
ISBN: 978-1-904455-53-0
"a thorough review of recent research in the genetics of Aspergillus ... It has information on Aspergillus species that is difficult to find in other sources." from Rebecca T. Horvat (University of Kansas Medical Center) writing in Doodys read more ...
Retroviruses book review
Category: Virology | Book Review
Excerpt from a book review that was published recently:
Retroviruses: Molecular Biology, Genomics and Pathogenesis
ISBN: 978-1-904455-55-4
"impressive work ... a substantial resource to the field ... thorough state of research coverage by leading specialists ... essential reading for veterinary scientists, clinicians, virologists, and graduate students in the field." from SciTech Book News (March 2010) read more ...
Retroviruses: Molecular Biology, Genomics and Pathogenesis
ISBN: 978-1-904455-55-4
"impressive work ... a substantial resource to the field ... thorough state of research coverage by leading specialists ... essential reading for veterinary scientists, clinicians, virologists, and graduate students in the field." from SciTech Book News (March 2010) read more ...