Plant Viral Vectors for Protein Expression
from Yuri Y. Gleba and Anatoli Giritch writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Plant-virus-driven transient expression of heterologous proteins is the basis of several mature manufacturing processes that are currently being used for the production of multiple proteins including vaccine antigens and antibodies. Viral vectors have also become useful tools for research. In recent years, advances have been made both in the development of first-generation vectors (those that employ the 'full virus' strategy) as well as second-generation vectors designed using the 'deconstructed virus' approach. This second strategy relies on Agrobacterium as a vector to deliver DNA copies of one or more viral RNA replicons. Among the most often used viral backbones are those of Tobacco mosaic virus, Potato virus X, and Cowpea mosaic virus. Prototypes of industrial processes that provide for high-yield, rapid scale-up, and fast manufacturing have been recently developed using viral vectors, with several manufacturing facilities compliant with good manufacturing practices (GMP) in place, and a number of pharmaceutical proteins currently in pre-clinical and clinical trials.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Expression of heterologous proteins | Tobacco mosaic virus | Potato virus X | Cowpea mosaic virus

Virus Particles and the Uses of Such Particles in Bio- and Nanotechnology
from George P. Lomonossoff writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

The capsids of most plant viruses are simple and robust structures consisting of multiple copies of one or a few types of protein subunit arranged with either icosahedral or helical symmetry. The capsids can be produced in large quantities either by the infection of plants or by the expression of the subunit(s) in a variety of heterologous systems. In view of their relative simplicity and ease of production, plant virus particles or virus-like particles (VLPs) have attracted much interest over the past 20 years for applications in both bio- and nanotechnology. As result, plant virus particles have been subjected to both genetic and chemical modification, have been used to encapsulate foreign material and have, themselves, been incorporated into supramolecular structures.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications | Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications | Virology Publications

Key words: Capsids | Virus | Nanotechnology | Plant virus particles | Virus-like particles | VLPs

Endogenous Viral Sequences in Plant Genomes
from Pierre-Yves Teycheney and Andrew D.W. Geering writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Endogenous viral sequences from members of two virus families, the Caulimoviridae and Geminiviridae, have been discovered in several monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plant species. For the most part, these sequences are replication-defective but those capable of causing infection have been discovered in tobacco (Nicotiana edwardsonii), petunia (Petunia hybrida) and banana and plantain (Musa spp.). Activation of endogenous caulimovirid sequences is one of the major impediments to international banana and plantain breeding efforts. Research on endogenous viral sequences in plants is still in its infancy, with little known about the contributions of these sequences to host and virus evolution, nor even a classification system adopted. On a practical note, problems still exist with differentially detecting viral genomic DNA in a host genetic background containing endogenous viral sequences, and a solution to the problem of activation of endogenous viral sequences in banana is still far away.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Caulimoviridae | Geminiviridae | Nicotiana edwardsonii | Petunia hybrida | Musa | Viral evolution | Viral sequences in plants

Genomic Approaches to Discovery of Viral Species Diversity of Non-cultivated Plants
from Ulrich Melcher and Veenita Grover writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Outbreaks of newly emerging and re-emerging animal and plant viruses pose a constant threat to public health and food security and emphasize the need to develop efficient methods for viral detection and identification. Ongoing studies for discovery of viral species in non-cultivated plants utilize genomic approaches for systematic unbiased searches for viruses related to known viruses. Genomic approaches use various combinations of methods for sampling the environment, enriching samples for content of viral genomes, amplifying nucleic acids, and detecting virus-related sequences among the amplified nucleic acids. These methods include particularly array hybridization to macroarrays and microarrays, and various megasequencing approaches. In all cases, relatives of known viruses are discovered. However, the identification of a novel plant virus completely unrelated to known ones remains a challenge. Despite a growing list of viruses infecting wild plants, virus infections in wild plant communities are often underestimated relative to cultivated systems, since viruses in wild plants are generally considered not to harm the host. Viruses may not be explicitly damaging wild plants, but their biodiversity and abundance suggest an important role of these viruses in ecosystems. These roles should not be under-rated just because they are under-researched.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Plant infection | Plant viruses | Plant virology | Plant Virus

Emergence of Begomovirus Diseases
from Enrique Moriones, Jesus Navas-Castillo and Juan-Antonio Díaz-Pendón writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Begomoviruses (genus Begomovirus, family Geminiviridae) rank among the top of the most important plant viruses causing disease of severe consequences in economically and socially relevant crops. From the early 1990s, a rapid emergence and geographic expansion of begomoviruses has occurred worldwide. As a result, these viruses have become the most destructive group of plant viruses in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Their emergence is associated with the emergence of populations of the insect vector, the whitefly Bemisia tabaci, probably due to increased plant trading between distantly separated geographical regions and changes in agricultural practices. Human activity seems to have been a major factor promoting emergence of begomoviruses. Other factors also drive emergence.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Geminiviridae | Plant viruses | Bemisia tabaci | Insect Vector | Begomoviruses | Crop disease

Evolutionary Constraints on Emergence of Plant RNA Viruses
from Santiago F. Elena writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Over the recent years, agricultural activity in many regions has been compromised by a succession of devastating epidemics caused by new viruses that switched host species, or by new variants of classic viruses that acquired new virulence factors or changed their epidemiological patterns. Although viral emergence has been classically associated with ecological change or with agronomical practices that brought in contact reservoirs and crop species, it has become obvious that the picture is much more complex, and results from an evolutionary process in which the main players are the changes in ecological factors, the tremendous genetic plasticity of viruses, the several host factors required for virus replication, and a strong stochastic component. A recent review puts the emergence of RNA viruses into the framework of evolutionary genetics and reviews the basic notions necessary to understand emergence, stressing that viral emergence begins with a stochastic process that involves the transmission of a pre-existing viral strain with the right genetic background into a new host species, followed by adaptation to the new host during the early stages of infection.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: RNA viruses | Viral evolution | Virus evolution | Viral emergence | RNA | RNA virus | Viral ecology

Population Dynamics and Genetics of Plant Infection by Viruses
from Fernando García-Arenal and Aurora Fraile writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

During the last thirty years, progress in understanding the mechanistic aspects of virus-plant interactions has been remarkable, notably in aspects such as genome replication, movement within the infected host or pathogenesis and resistance. Progress in understanding the population dynamics and genetics of plant infection by viruses has not been as great. However, understanding the kinetics of plant colonisation and the genetic structure of the within-host virus population is necessary for addressing many issues of plant-virus interaction and of virus evolution. The quantitative aspects of plant infection and colonisation by viruses were mostly addressed during the early period of plant virology, when many detailed studies were published that often incorporated mathematical modelling. These issues have not been thoroughly re-examined using molecular techniques. Recent work has focussed on the description of the genetic structure of the virus population at the organ and the plant level. Data suggest that in spite of huge fecundity, the effective numbers of the within-host virus population may be small due to severe population bottlenecks at each stage of plant infection and colonisation, which results in a spatially structured population.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Plant Pathogens | Plant virology | Plant viruses | Virus plant interactions | Plant virus interactions | Virus evolution | Plant infection

Integrated Control Measures Against Viruses and Their Vectors
from Alberto Fereres and Aranzazu Moreno writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Viruses and their vectors produce severe damage to crops worldwide. Of importance are the strategies and tactics used to manage vectors of plant viruses, with special attention to insects, by far the most important type of vector. The philosophy and principles of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) developed long ago can still provide an effective and sustainable way to manage insect vectors of virus diseases of plants. Preventive strategies such as the development of models that forecast virus disease outbreaks together with host plant resistance, cultural and physical tactics are the most effective ways to control nonpersistently-transmitted viruses. A reduction in vector numbers using conventional systemic insecticides or innundative biological control agents can also provide effective control of persistently-transmitted viruses. Recent advances on understanding of the mode of transmission of plant viruses are also a very promising way to develop molecules to block putative virus binding sites within the vector and to avoid virus retention and transmission. Also, the characterization of aphid's salivary components that is underway may facilitate the development of new tools to interfere with the process of transmission of plant viruses.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Virus | Viruses | Viral vectors | Virus diseases in crops | Virus vectors | Plant viruses | Plant Pathogens

Sustainable Management of Plant Resistance to Viruses
from Benoît Moury, Alberto Fereres, Fernando García-Arenal and Hervé Lecoq writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Although viruses are among the parasites which induce the most severe damages on cultivated plants, few control methods have been developed against them. Notably, no curative methods can be applied against virus diseases in crops. In view of this major economic problem, the development of resistant cultivars has become a critical factor of competitiveness for breeders. However, plant - virus interactions are highly dynamic and the selective pressure exerted by plant resistance frequently favours the emergence of adapted virus populations. Given the scarcity of resistance genes, there is consequently an urgent need to increase the sustainability of these genetic resources. A recent publication reviews the biological mechanisms which allow the emergence of virus populations adapted to plant resistances and how we can use this knowledge to explain the relative durability of different resistance genes, to built predictors of resistance durability and to combine the use of resistances with other control methods to increase their sustainability.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Virus Resistance | Virus | Viruses | Virus diseases in crops | Plant virus interactions | Plant resistance | Resistance genes

Advanced Breeding for Virus Resistance in Plants
from Alain Palloix and Frank Ordon writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Breeding for virus resistance was successful in the past years using conventional breeding methods since many virus resistant cultivars have been delivered for a wide range of crops. Genome mapping provided molecular markers for many resistance loci (i.e., major genes or Quantitative Trait Loci) that were introgressed into cultivars e.g., through backcross breeding schemes. Molecular mapping also delivered much information on the genomic architecture of polygenic and quantitative resistances. However, marker assisted selection for such complex traits is difficult so that the combination of quantitative resistance factors from multiallelic origins commonly relies on sophisticated phenotyping procedures. The cloning of resistance genes and the rapid development of high throughput molecular technologies increased the access to functional markers and multiallelic markers, promoting the applicability of marker assisted selection for complex traits at the whole genome scale in the near future. In parallel, the advances in the identification of molecular determinants of plant/virus interactions and in genetics and evolution of virus populations provide new selection criteria for breeders to choose the most durable resistance genes and gene combinations, so that breeding for durable virus resistance becomes an accessible quest.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Virus Resistance | Quantitative Trait Loci | Resistance genes

Plant Resistance to Viruses Mediated by Translation Initiation Factors
from Olivier Le Gall, Miguel A. Aranda and Carole Caranta writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Host resistance to viruses can show dominant or recessive inheritance. Remarkably, recessive resistance genes are much more common for viruses than for other plant pathogens. Recessive resistances to viruses are especially well documented within the dicotyledons, and have been described for various viruses that belong to very different viral genera, although clearly they predominate among viruses belonging to the genus Potyvirus. The elucidation of the molecular nature of this particular class of resistance genes is recent, but has so far only revealed a group of proteins linked to the translation machinery, chiefly the eukaryotic translation initiation factors (eIF) 4E and 4G. There are specific features and mechanisms of eIF4E- and 4G-mediated resistances to potyviruses and viruses belonging to other genera, such as carmoviruses.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Virus Resistance | Virus | Viruses | Translation Initiation Factors | Potyvirus | eIF | Carmoviruses | Potyviruses | Eukaryotic translation initiation factors

NB-LRR Immune Receptors in Plant Virus Defense
from Patrick Cournoyer and Savithramma P. Dinesh-Kumar writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Resistance genes protect plants from infection by viruses and many other classes of pathogens. The dominant, anti-viral R genes that have been cloned thus far encode NB-LRR immune receptors that detect a single viral protein and trigger defense. Many different types of viral proteins are known to elicit defense by corresponding NB-LRRs. Defense often results in a type of localized programmed cell death at the site of attempted pathogen infection known as the hypersensitive response (HR-PCD), but some NB-LRRs confer resistance to viruses without HR-PCD. The activation of NB-LRRs triggers manifold signaling events including reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, nitric oxide (NO) production, calcium (Ca²⁺) influx, activation of mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and production of the plant hormones salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA), and ethylene. After a successful NB-LRR-mediated defense event, the plant exhibits heightened resistance to future pathogen challenge in a state called systemic acquired resistance.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: NB-LRR Immune Receptors | Plant Virus Defense | Virus | Viruses | Plant Pathogens | NB-LRR | Resistance genes | Plant viruses | Plant virology

Mechanism of Action of Viral Suppressors of RNA Silencing
from József Burgyán writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

RNA silencing is an evolutionarily conserved sequence-specific gene-inactivation system that also functions as an antiviral mechanism in higher plants and insects. To overcome this defence system, viruses encode suppressors of RNA silencing, which can counteract the host silencing-based antiviral process. More than 50 individual viral suppressors have been identified from almost all plant virus genera, underlining their crucial role in successful virus infection. Viral suppressors are considered to be of recent evolution, and they are surprisingly diverse within and across kingdoms, exhibiting no obvious sequence similarity. Virus-encoded silencing suppressors can target several key components in the silencing machinery, such as silencing-related RNA structures and essential effector proteins and complexes. There has been much recent progress in our understanding of the mechanism and function of viral suppressors of antiviral RNA silencing in plants.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications | RNA and the Regulation of Gene Expression

Key words: RNA Silencing | Gene expression | Gene regulation | Viral Suppressors | Virus | Viruses

Virus-encoded Suppressors of RNA Silencing and the Role of Cellular miRNAs in Mammalian Antiviral Immune Responses
from Joost Haasnoot and Ben Berkhout writing in RNA Interference and Viruses
Small RNA-directed silencing mechanisms play important roles in the regulation of eukaryotic gene expression. In plants, insects, nematodes and fungi RNA silencing mechanisms are also involved in innate antiviral defence responses. To counter antiviral RNA silencing, viruses from plants, insects and fungi encode RNA silencing suppressors (RSSs). Recent studies suggest that RNA silencing in mammals, or RNA interference (RNAi), is also involved in antiviral responses. In particular, there is increasing evidence that cellular regulatory microRNAs (miRNAs) have a function in restricting virus replication in mammalian cells. Similar to plant and insect viruses, several mammalian viruses encode RSS factors that inhibit the RNAi mechanism. Several of these suppressors are multifunctional proteins that were previously shown to block innate antiviral immune responses involving the interferon (IFN) pathway.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | RNA Interference and Viruses | RNA and the Regulation of Gene Expression

Key words: miRNAs | Virus-encoded Suppressors | RNA Silencing | Antiviral miRNA | Gene expression | Gene regulation | Small RNA

RNA Silencing in Plants and the Role of Viral Suppressors
from Ana Giner, Juan Jose Lopez-Moya and Lorant Lakatos writing in RNA Interference and Viruses
The term RNA silencing refers to several pathways present in eukaryotic organisms that lead to the sequence specific elimination or functional blocking of RNAs with homology to double stranded RNAs (dsRNAs) that have previously triggered the mechanism. Besides playing important roles in developmental control, RNA silencing forms part of the defence against viruses in plants, acting as a potent antiviral mechanism. To escape from the RNA silencing-based defence, most plant viruses make use of different strategies, the most common relying in the action of viral proteins with the capacity to suppress RNA silencing. The characterization of these viral suppressors is providing useful insights to understand how RNA silencing works, revealing components and steps in the silencing pathways.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | RNA Interference and Viruses | RNA and the Regulation of Gene Expression

Key words: RNA Silencing | Viral Suppressors | Plant viruses | Plant virology

RNA Silencing and the Interplay Between Plants and Viruses
from Lourdes Fernández-Calvino, Livia Donaire and César Llave writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

In eukaryotes, RNA silencing controls gene expression to regulate development, genome stability and stress-induced responses. In plants, this process is also recognized as a major immune system targeted against plant viruses. Plant viruses stimulate RNA silencing responses though formation of viral RNA with double-stranded features that are subsequently processed into functional small RNAs (sRNAs). Recent studies highlight the complexity of the viral sRNA populations and their potential to associate with multiple silencing effector complexes. This fact has profound implications in the cross-talk interactions between plants and viruses since both virus genomes and host genes are putative targets of viral sRNAs. The concept of RNA silencing is an elegant natural antiviral mechanism in plants. Viral sRNA-mediated regulation of gene expression is important in the frame of compatible interactions between plants and viruses.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications | RNA and the Regulation of Gene Expression

Key words: RNA Silencing | Gene expression | Gene regulation

Functions of Virus and Host Factors During Vector-mediated Transmission
from Stéphane Blanc and Martin Drucker writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Most plant viruses are transmitted by living vectors that transport viruses to a new host plant. One discriminates between circulative transmission, where viruses must pass through the vector interior and are usually inoculated with the saliva on a healthy plant, and non-circulative transmission, where viruses do not need to pass through the vector interior but are directly inoculated from the mouth parts into a new host. Especially transmission of non-circulative viruses has been regarded as a simple process where a vector more or less accidentally transports the virus. However, it becomes more and more evident that this scenario is unlikely, because transmission constitutes a dramatic bottleneck of the virus life cycle, where only very few viral genomes pass to a new host, and where a given virus must do everything to ensure successful transmission. Viruses, also in non-circulative transmission, deliberately manipulate their hosts and vectors in often very unexpected ways to optimise their transmission.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Virus | Viruses | Virology | Plant Pathogens | Plant virology | Virus transmission | Plant viruses

Systemic Movement of Viruses Via the Plant Phloem
from Vicente Pallás, Ainhoa Genovés, M. Amelia Sánchez-Pina and José Antonio Navarro writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

The incorporation of non invasive techniques has allowed remarkable progress in our understanding of the vascular transport of plant viruses. Indeed, approximately seventy-five percent of reports about this topic have been published after the first use of the jellyfish green fluorescent protein (GFP) in plant virology. In the last two decades, a very detailed picture of the viral determinants involved in phloem transport of plant viruses has been obtained. However, we realize that most virus-host interactions are pathosystem-specific and, consequently, the identification of common host factors involved in phloem transport of plant viruses is the exception rather than the rule. In addition, we are still far from obtaining a clear picture of how environmental factors influence the vascular invasion of plants by these pathogens. A recent publication reviews the progress made in understanding the viral determinants involved in vascular transport of viruses and the pathways followed by viruses during systemic movement, and focuses on host and environmental conditions that influence the final distribution of viruses in the plant.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Plant Pathogens | Plant viruses | Green fluorescent protein | GFP | Plant virology | Phloem transport of plant viruses

Plasmodesmata as Active Conduits for Virus Cell-to-Cell Movement
from Lourdes Fernandez-Calvino, Christine Faulkner and Andy Maule writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

It has been known for many decades that viruses need to exploit plasmodesmata as channels of cytoplasmic connectivity through plant cell walls. However, we do not yet understand the molecular mechanisms involved in moving a single infectious entity from cell to cell, although it is clear that virus-encoded movement proteins play a central role. Major progress has been made in identifying movement proteins, their associations with subcellular structures/organelles, and their biochemical properties with respect to nucleic acid-binding and physical associations with host and other viral proteins. These studies reveal a specificity in functional evolution where viruses share some similarities in their movement strategies with near and far phylogenetic groups but show few examples of processes that might apply to all or many individual viruses. Plasmodesmata also provide channels for cellular communication essential for plant growth, development and defense. As such, there is increasing attention aimed at resolving their constituent components necessary for structure and function. With the limited success of genetic screens, proteomic analysis of biochemically-enriched plasmodesmal fractions has also been pursued. Through the identification of plasmodesmal proteins we will have the opportunity to understand how movement proteins bring about the massive changes in the physical behaviour of plasmodesmata that result in the translocation of the macromolecular complexes responsible for virus infectivity.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Plasmodesmata | Plant viruses | Viruses

Replication of Plant RNA Viruses
from Peter D. Nagy and Judit Pogany writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Among plant viruses, the positive-stranded RNA [(+)RNA] viruses are the largest group, and the most widespread. The central step in the infection cycle of (+)RNA viruses is RNA replication, which is carried out by virus-specific replicase complexes consisting of viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, one or more auxiliary viral replication proteins, and a number of co-opted host factors. Viral replicase complexes assemble in specialized membranous compartments in infected cells. Sequestering the replicase complexes is not only helpful for rapid production of a large number of viral (+)RNA progeny, but it also facilitates avoiding recognition by the host¹s anti-viral surveillance system, and it provides protection from degradation of the viral RNA. Successful viral replication is followed by cell-to-cell and long-distance movement throughout the plant, as well as encapsidation of the (+)RNA progeny to facilitate transmission to new plants. A recent review provides an overview of our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms in plant (+)RNA virus replication. Recent significant progress in this research area is based on development of powerful in vivo and in vitro methods, including replicase assays, reverse genetic approaches, intracellular localization studies, genome-wide screens for co-opted host factors and the use of plant or yeast model hosts.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications | RNA and the Regulation of Gene Expression

Key words: Replication | Viruses | Virus Replication | Virus | Plant viruses | Plant Pathogens

Roles of Cis-acting Elements in Translation of Viral RNAs
from W. Allen Miller, Jelena Kraft, Zhaohui Wang and Qiuling Fan writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Cis-acting signals regulate translation of viral RNAs to produce viral proteins at the appropriate levels and timing to maximize virus replication. A recent review describes the cis-acting sequences that achieve this translational control via processes such as cap-dependent translation, leaky scanning to initiate translation at more than one start codon, ribosomal shunting, cap-independent translation initiation controlled from the 5' and/or 3' untranslated region, poly(A) tail-independent translation initiation, stop codon readthrough, and ribosomal frameshifting. Secondary structures and, in some cases, tertiary structures of the RNA sequences control these events and translation events facilitated by the cis-acting signals mesh with the overall replication strategies of the diverse viruses that employ these mechanisms.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Cis-acting Elements | Viral RNAs | Virus Replication | Viruses | Virus RNA

Vaccines Against Newly Emerging Viral Diseases: The Example of SARS
from Bart L. Haagmans writing in Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Several newly emerging viral diseases in humans have been reported recently. The ability to identify and characterize the relevant pathogen and develop safe and effective vaccines against these newly emerging pathogens in a timely manner is utmost importance. In this respect, the global response to the SARS epidemic provided valuable experience which can be utilized to respond quickly to future emerging viral infections. In only a few weeks time the nucleotide sequence of this virus was available and through computational analysis of gene sequences diagnostic tests and vaccine candidates were identified and subsequently developed. Eight years after the first SARS outbreak several candidate SARS-CoV vaccines are at various stages of pre-clinical and clinical development. The "classical" inactivated whole virus vaccine as well as a DNA vaccine expressing the spike gene ultimately reached the phase 1 clinical trial testing. These vaccines induce neutralizing antibodies to SARS-CoV and protect against SARS-CoV challenge. However, these vaccines still need to be further tested against viruses closely related to SARS-CoV that potentially may emerge and for the absence of significant side effects. The lessons learned from this outbreak combined with more recently developed techniques may aid the development of effective vaccines against future emerging viral diseases.

Further reading: Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies | Coronaviruses: Molecular and Cellular Biology

Key words: SARS | Newly Emerging Viral Diseases | Newly Emerging Pathogens | Emerging Pathogen | SARS-CoV | Emerging Pathogens | Vaccine Research | Vaccines | Vaccine | Vaccine Design | Sars Outbreak

Veterinary Vaccines with a Focus on Bovine Mastitis
from John R. Middleton writing in Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

While novel approaches to vaccination against diseases of veterinary importance are being explored, currently marketed products, in general, employ old technology with the majority of products still being killed, modified live, or toxoid preparations. Due to the breadth of diseases encountered in veterinary medicine and the large number of vaccines marketed and under development, a recent review focuses on vaccines aimed at preventing bovine mastitis with a particular focus on Staphylococcus aureus, a bacterium that not only causes mastitis in cattle, but is a leading cause human infection. Vaccine developments for S. aureus in cattle will be compared with research aimed at preventing staphylococcal infection in humans. There are other available vaccines aimed at preventing bovine mastitis serving to illustrate that the goals of vaccination may differ depending on the type of infection being prevented.

Further reading: Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Key words: Vaccines | Vaccine | Vaccine Design | Bovine Mastitis | Vaccination | Toxoid Preparations | Veterinary Medicine | Staphylococcus aureus | Staphylococcus | Vaccine Development | Staphylococcal Infection

Vaccines against Streptococcus pneumoniae
from James C. Paton writing in Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Existing vaccines against Streptococcus pneumoniae are targeted at the capsular polysaccharide (PS) of which there are 91 distinct serotypes. Polyvalent purified PS vaccines are immunogenic in healthy adults, but not in high risk groups such as young children and the elderly. Development of PS-protein conjugate vaccines has overcome the poor immunogenicity of PS in children, but the protection imparted is strictly serotype-specific, and the number of included serotypes is even more restricted than in the PS vaccine formulations. Widespread introduction of conjugate vaccines in developed countries has dramatically reduced the incidence of invasive pneumococcal disease due to serotypes included in the vaccine. However, these benefits are being eroded by increases in the incidence of disease caused by non-vaccine serotypes. Conjugate vaccines are also expensive, limiting their use in developing countries, where the burden of pneumococcal disease is greatest. Clearly, there is an urgent need to develop alternative pneumococcal vaccines that are (i) inexpensive, (ii) immunogenic in young children, and (iii) provide protection against all pneumococci regardless of serotype. Of particular importance are vaccines comprising pneumococcal proteins that contribute to virulence and are common to all serotypes.

Further reading: Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies | Bacterial Polysaccharides: Current Innovations and Future Trends

Key words: Vaccine | Vaccines | Vaccine Design | Vaccine Research | Capsular Polysaccharide | Pneumococcal Disease | Conjugate Vaccines | Pneumococcal Vaccines | Pneumococci | Pneumococcal Proteins | Streptococcus | Streptococcus pneumoniae | Vaccine Developments

Toward the Development of a Universal Vaccine Against Group B Streptococcus
from Roberta Cozzi, John L. Telford and Domenico Maione writing in Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Group B Streptococcus (GBS) is one of the most common cause of life-threatening bacterial infections in infants and is also an emerging pathogen among adult humans, especially in the elderly, immunocompromised and diabetic adults. Capsular polysaccharide based vaccines of the most common serotypes present in the United States and Europe are in an advanced stage of development but they are not effective against serotypes present in other parts of the world. Many protein antigens have been studied for the discovery of an effective universal vaccine that could overcome serotype specificity. Thanks to reverse vaccinology and new technologies, a vaccine combination based on the pilus proteins has been discovered for the development of a universal GBS vaccine that is potentially capable of preventing all GBS infections.

Further reading: Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies | Pili and Flagella: Current Research and Future Trends

Key words: Vaccine | Vaccination | Vaccine Research | Vaccines | Vaccine Design | Group B Streptococcus | GBS | GBS vaccine | Universal Vaccine | Streptococcus | Emerging Pathogen | Polysaccharide | Capsular Polysaccharide | Polysaccharides | Reverse Vaccinology | Pilus | Pilus Proteins

Nosocomial infections: Staphylococcus aureus
from Alice G. Cheng, Olaf Schneewind and Dominique Missiakas writing in Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Staphylococcus aureus is the most frequent cause of human skin and soft tissue, bloodstream and respiratory tract infections. Staphylococcal strains have acquired antibiotic resistance traits against available therapies and drug-resistant strains (MRSA, methicillin-resistant S. aureus) are currently isolated in up to 80% of hospital and 60% of community-acquired infections (CA-MRSA). Unlike pneumococci and group A streptococci; S. aureus infections do not raise immunity against subsequent infections. Consistent with this observation, early efforts to develop vaccines from whole-cell killed preparations of staphylococci have failed. More recent work characterized proteins and carbohydrates in the staphylococcal envelope and examined these molecules as protective antigens in vaccine studies. A recent article reviews the pathogenesis of S. aureus infections as well as past and current efforts that have been pursued to develop effective vaccines.

Further reading: Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies | Staphylococcus: Molecular Genetics

Key words: Staphylococcus | Staphylococcus aureus | Staphylococcus Vaccines | Staphylococcus Vaccine | MRSA | Community-Acquired Infections | Pneumococci | Group A Streptococci | Staphylococci | Vaccine Studies | Pathogenesis | Vaccine Design | Staphylococcus Vaccine | Vaccines | Vaccine | Vaccine Research | Respiratory Tract Infections | Methicillin-Resistant | Nosocomial Infections

Vaccines to Combat Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infections in Immunocompromised Patients
from Jennifer M. Scarff and Joanna B. Goldberg writing in Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an important opportunistic pathogen that causes an array of nosocomial infections, such as ventilator-associated pneumonia and infections in cancer patients. P. aeruginosa infections are difficult to treat with antibiotics, making the need for other therapeutic options, such as vaccination, critical. The main target antigen for vaccines has been the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of P. aeruginosa and studies show that vaccination may be partially protective, but that a combination of vaccination with either antibiotic treatment or cell transfusion protocols typically works best. The efficacy of vaccination, particularly against LPS, has been investigated in human cancer patients. These patients were capable of mounting an immune response, but it was often short-lived or accompanied by severe side effects. An anti-Pseudomonas vaccine could be beneficial to aid in treatment of nosocomial infections caused by this bacterium, but would need optimization for better efficacy.

Further reading: Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies | Pseudomonas: Genomics and Molecular Biology

Key words: Pseudomonas | Pseudomonas Vaccines | Pseudomonas Vaccine | Pseudomonas Aeruginosa | Immunocompromised Patients | Opportunistic Pathogen | Nosocomial Infections | Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia | Cancer | Vaccination | Lipopolysaccharide | Pseudomonas Lipopolysaccharide | Immune Response | LPS | Polysaccharides | Polysaccharide

Vaccines for Neglected Diseases
from Allan Saul writing in Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Infectious diseases exert a major burden of disease in developing countries. While better use of existing vaccines would make an appreciable difference, the greatest burden is caused by diseases for which we currently have no vaccines. The picture, especially in children, is dominated by diarrheal and respiratory diseases. Paradoxically diseases have relatively low priority for funding in absolute terms, and especially in relationship to the burden of disease. Thus, new vaccines for these neglected diseases need both innovative scientific solutions and innovative development schemes involving scientific institutes, public financing and industrial input. The industrial input is critical: not only will vaccine manufacture require an industrial partner, but the knowledge to efficiently undertake the technical and clinical development leading to vaccine production largely resides in industry. A potentially important development in this area has been the recent formation of Industry Linked Vaccine Institutes: For example, The Novartis Vaccines Institute for Global Health and the Hilleman Laboratories. These are an important conduit for applying industrial know how for developing commercial vaccines to the pressing need for vaccines for neglected diseases of developing countries.

Further reading: Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Key words: Vaccines | Vaccine | Vaccine Developments | Vaccine Research | Respiratory Diseases | New Vaccines | Industry Linked Vaccine Institutes | Novartis Vaccines Institute | Hilleman Laboratories

The First Vaccine Obtained Through Reverse Vaccinology: The Serogroup B Meningococcus Vaccine
from Jeannette Adu-Bobie, Beatrice Aricò, Marzia M. Giuliani and Davide Serruto writing in Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Neisseria meningitidis was isolated over one hundred years when Anton Weicshelbaum identified the causative agent of cerebrospinal meningitis. Since its isolation in 1887, N. meningitidis has been recognized to cause endemic cases, case clusters, epidemics and pandemics of meningitis and devastating septicaemia. Despite over one century since its discovery, scientists have yet to identify a universal vaccine for this deadly bacterium. Although vaccines exist for several serogroups of pathogenic N. meningitidis, serotype B (MenB) has eluded scientists for decades, until the advent of genomics. The genome era has completely changed the way to design vaccines. The availability of the complete genome of microorganisms combined with a novel advanced technology has introduced a new prospective in vaccine research. This novel approach is now known as "Reverse Vaccinology" and N. meningitidis can be considered the first successful example of its application. A recent review describes the successful story of the development of the serogroup B vaccine, starting from the analysis of genome and finishing with the results obtained in clinical trials.

Further reading: Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies | Neisseria: Molecular Mechanisms of Pathogenesis

Key words: Vaccine | Vaccine Design | Vaccine Developments | Vaccines | Complete Genome of Microorganisms | Vaccine Research | Serogroup B Vaccine | Clinical Trials | Reverse Vaccinology | MenB | Genomics | Serogroup B Meningococcus | Serogroup B Meningococcus Vaccine | Neisseria Meningitidis | Meningitis | Neisseria | Septicaemia | Universal Vaccine

Intralymphatic Vaccination
from Thomas M. Kündig, Pal Johansen, and Gabriela Senti writing in Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

The immune response is initiated by dendritic cells (DCs) and other antigen-presenting cells. These cells are present in nearly all organs and tissues of the body, so that theoretically any organ or tissue could serve as a route for vaccine administration. The choice of route is therefore mainly based on practical aspects. Using conventional needle and syringe the subcutaneous or intramuscular route are standard. The dermis and especially the epidermis are technically more difficult to target, but are likely to gain more interest due to the recent development of micro-needle patches and needle free injection devices. Vaccine administration via mucosal surfaces such as nasal or oral vaccination represents another option for needle free vaccine administration. While all the above mentioned routes of administration have been proven to work and protect against childhood diseases, influenza and many other infectious agents, the discussion and comparison of these different routes usually focuses on patient convenience, reduction of pain and distress for children, cost and on the possibility for mass vaccination. However, the route of administration can enhance the efficacy of vaccination. Especially in therapeutic vaccination, i.e., in a smaller patient number that already suffers from a disease, vaccination efficiency rather than convenience is the main issue. This is particularly the case in therapeutic cancer vaccines and in allergen specific immunotherapy. Intralymphatic vaccination is a strategy to maximize immunogenicity and therefore vaccine efficacy.

Further reading: Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Key words: Intralymphatic Vaccination | Immune Response | Dendritic Cells | Antigen-Presenting Cells | Mucosal Surfaces | Needle Free Vaccine Administration | Influenza | Efficacy of Vaccination | Therapeutic Vaccination | Cancer Vaccines | Allergen Specific Immunotherapy | Vaccine Efficacy

Mucosal Vaccines
from Rajesh Ravindran and Bali Pulendran writing in Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

The term "mucosal vaccination" has traditionally been used to describe strategies in which a vaccine is administered via the mucosal route. Unlike parenteral vaccination, mucosal vaccines do not require the use of needles, thus enabling vaccine compliance and reducing logistical challenges and the risks of acquiring blood borne infections. However, despite the great success of mucosal vaccines such as the polio vaccine, several formidable challenges hinder the effective elicitation of immunity against pathogens that invade mucosal sites. First, in humans the mucosal surfaces of the gut, lung, oral cavity and reproductive tracts are estimated to cover an area of 400 square meters, and thus represent the largest portal of entry for pathogens. Second, the acidic environments of many mucosal sites, and the delineation of mucosal sites by the epithelial barrier, pose challenges to the effective delivery of vaccines. Third, the mucosal immune system is faced with a somewhat schizophrenic challenge of having to launch robust immunity against mucosal pathogens, whilst restraining immune reactivity to commensals and food antigens. Fourth, the induction of the appropriate type of immune response is critical for effective protection against different pathogens. Fifth, the accurate quantitation of mucosal T and B cell responses pose unique challenges. Despite these challenges, recent advances in our understanding of the innate immunity and its regulation of adaptive immunity at mucosal sites, are beginning to offer new insights into strategies that result in immune protection at mucosal surfaces. In particular, several recent studies demonstrate that parenteral vaccination with the appropriate adjuvants can induce migration of antigen-specific T and B lymphocytes to mucosal sites. These advances promise to accelerate the development and testing of new mucosal vaccines against many diseases including HIV/AIDS. Most infectious agents that infect humans do so via mucosal sites, principally the digestive, respiratory and genitourinary tracts. Immune defenses at mucosal surfaces therefore constitute a very vital part of the overall protective responses against these invading pathogens. Vaccines that are administered via the oral routes most proficiently induce the mucosal immune responses. In contrast, parenterally administered vaccines are generally poor inducers of mucosal immunity and are therefore less efficient against infections originating at mucosal surfaces (Rajesh Ravindran and Bali Pulendran). However, only a few mucosal vaccines have been approved for human use (Table 1, Rajesh Ravindran and Bali Pulendran)). However, progress in research aimed at understanding the molecular and cellular mechanisms of the mucosal system is presently accelerating, allowing us to design innovative strategies for the development of mucosal vaccines.

Further reading: Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Key words: Vaccine Design | Vaccine | Vaccines | Vaccine Developments | Mucosal Vaccination | Parenteral Vaccination | Mucosal Vaccines | Polio Vaccine | Mucosal Immune System | Immunity Against Mucosal Pathogens | B Cell Response | T Cell Response | Adaptive Immunity | Innate Immunity | B Lymphocytes | T Lymphocytes | New Mucosal Vaccines | HIV | AIDS | Development of Mucosal Vaccines

Vaccine Adjuvants
from David A. G. Skibinski and Derek T. O'Hagan writing in Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

The development of new effective vaccines, especially those consisting of highly purified antigens, will increasingly require the inclusion of an adjuvant. With over half a century of experience, aluminium containing adjuvants (alum) will continue to be widely used and until very recently remained the only vaccine adjuvant approved for human use in the US. In recent years a number of studies have started to reveal a more detailed understanding of alum's mechanism of action. There is a the need for more potent adjuvants than alum, with particular emphasis on the discovery and development of MF59, an emulsion based vaccine adjuvant which as been licensed for more than ten years in more than 20 countries, for use in an influenza vaccine focused on elderly subjects (Fluad).

Further reading: Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Key words: Vaccine | Vaccine Developments | Vaccines | Adjuvants | Influenza Vaccine | Influenza | New Effective Vaccines | MF59 | Fluad | Highly Purified Antigens | Aluminium Containing Adjuvants | Vaccine Adjuvant | Emulsion Based Vaccine Adjuvant

Bacterial Protein Toxin Used in Vaccines
from Jerry M. Keith writing in Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

At first glance, the idea of using protein toxins as vaccines against bacterial human diseases seems somewhat of a paradox. However, in some diseases, the severe pathological effects manifested by the causative agents are mediated entirely by protein toxins. Thus, it seems reasonable to expect that if antibodies could be induced against the protein toxin, they should be effective at preventing severe disease. Of course, the obvious challenge is to detoxify the protein toxin activity without destroying its ability to induce neutralizing antibodies. From an academic point of view, it is ironic that early vaccines against diphtheria, tetanus, and whooping cough were successful without understanding what made them work. One of the keys to this puzzle was uncovered quite by accident when it was discovered that diphtheria toxin stock preparations stored in large earthenware jars too large to be autoclaved were being detoxified by the residual formalin that leached into the preparations from the formalin-sterilized jars. It took two decades for this discovery to be understood and appreciated to a point where formalin-treatment could be applied to produce toxoid preparations for vaccination. It then took another half a century to develop the scientific tools and knowledge needed to bring forth the new generation of vaccines, which are highly effective and less reactogenic. A recent review traces the scientific history, controversies, and development of diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis vaccines.

Further reading: Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies | Microbial Toxins: Current Research and Future Trends

Key words: Vaccine | Vaccine Design | Vaccine Developments | Vaccines | Protein Toxins | Diphtheria | Tetanus | Whooping Cough | Diphtheria Toxin | Toxoid Preparations | New Generation Of Vaccines | Pertussis Vaccines | Tetanus Vaccines | Diphtheria Vaccines

New Frontiers in the Chemistry of Glycoconjugate Vaccines
from David R. Bundle writing in Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Methods for single point attachment of polysaccharides and oligosaccharides to protein carriers and T-cell peptides are important in vaccine design. Contemporary approaches involve synthetic oligosaccharides with linker or tether chemistry designed for compatibility with synthetic strategies. Current research involves the synthesis and evaluation of conjugate vaccines designed to combat infectious bacterial and fungal diseases, as well as the design and testing of therapeutic cancer vaccine. The prevailing dogma that protective B-cell epitopes should be comprised of 10-20 monosaccharides is confirmed for several experimental vaccines including those directed toward Shigell flexneri and Shigella dysenteriae. However, several small epitopes composed of 3-5 monosaccharide residues are sufficient to induce antibody against the whole organism and to confer protection.

Further reading: Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Key words: Vaccine Design | Vaccine Developments | Vaccine | Vaccines | B-Cell Epitopes | Monosaccharides | Experimental Vaccines | Shigell flexneri | Shigella dysenteriae | Synthetic Oligosaccharides | Tether Chemistry | Conjugate Vaccines | Therapeutic Cancer Vaccine | Fungal Diseases | Polysaccharides | Oligosaccharides | T-Cell Peptides

New Analytical Approaches for Measuring Protective Capacity of Antibodies
from Moon H. Nahm and Carl E. Frasch writing in Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Antibodies to the pneumococcal polysaccharide capsule protect the host by opsonizing pneumococci for host phagocytes, while antibodies to the meningococcal polysaccharide capsule protect by directly killing meningococci in the presence of complement. In vitro measurement of serum bactericidal antibody (SBA) against the meningococcus has been used for a long time as a measure of protective immunity. Technical developments of pneumococcal opsonophagocytosis assays (OPA) in the past decade permit measurements of opsonic capacity of sera from persons immunized with pneumococcal vaccines. Experience with OPAs shows that opsonic capacities of antisera are better than their antibody levels in predicting vaccine efficacy. Thus, measurements of opsonic capacity could be a surrogate of clinical studies of pneumococcal vaccines. By being the surrogate for clinical studies, the assays for protective function of antibodies would reduce the need for large clinical trials and facilitate vaccine developments and improvements.

Further reading: Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Key words: Vaccines | Vaccine | Vaccine Design | Pneumococcal Polysaccharide | Polysaccharide | Pneumococci | Meningococci | Meningococcus | Protective Immunity | Pneumococcal Opsonophagocytosis Assays | Complement | Predicting Vaccine Efficacy | Vaccine Developments | Pneumococcal Vaccines | Serum Bactericidal Antibody | Meningococcal Polysaccharide

Designing Vaccines in the Era of Genomics
from Fabio Bagnoli, Nathalie Norais, Ilaria Ferlenghi, Maria Scarselli, Claudio Donati, Silvana Savino, Michèle A. Barocchi and Rino Rappuoli writing in Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Genome sequencing has become routine, and modern vaccine design is taking advantage of the accumulating genomic information. Reverse vaccinology is built on genome-based antigen discovery and has largely replaced classical vaccinology methods based on growing and dissecting the microorganism. The main advantage of the approach is the fast prediction of vaccine candidates. Most of the antigens will be surface exposed proteins, since these antigens are most likely accessible to antibodies. This approach can be applied to non-cultivable microorganisms, something difficult or impossible to do with conventional approaches. When the first reverse vaccinology project was started, in the year 2000, antigen identification was mainly based on bioinformatic analysis of one genome. Since then, the technique has shown its full potential, with the first genome-derived vaccine now in clinical trials and several vaccines in preclinical studies. In the meantime the approach has been improved with the support of proteomics, functional genomics and comparative genomics. The complete process includes antigen prediction to high-throughput purification, screening and selection of the vaccine composition.

Further reading: Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Key words: Vaccine | Vaccines | Vaccine Design | Genome Sequencing | Reverse Vaccinology | Proteomics | Comparative Genomics | Antigen Prediction | Functional Genomics | Genome-Based Antigen Discovery | Surface Exposed Proteins | Antigens | Non-Cultivable Microorganisms | Bioinformatic Analysis | Genome-Derived Vaccine | Preclinical Studies | Clinical Trials

Overview of Vaccine Strategies
from Ruth Arnon writing in Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

There are different strategies applied for vaccination against microbial diseases. These include vaccines against bacterial, viral and parasitic infections which led to tremendous improvement in public health. Both live attenuated or killed whole organisms and their sub-units can be used, as well as more novel approaches, such as DNA vaccines, recombinant vaccines and epitope-based, or peptide vaccines. There are advantages and disadvantages of each approach, eluding to various considerations, such as efficacy, safety and cost of production. The application of passive vaccination, including the use of pooled IgG (IVIG) is also possible. As indicated, these combined strategies led to a long list of vaccines that are presently approved and licensed in the USA, Europe and many other countries. Also important are the pediatric combination vaccines DPT and MMR that are used worldwide, and led to drastic reduction of the incidence of infectious diseases.

Further reading: Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Key words: Vaccine | Vaccine Design | Vaccines | DNA Vaccines | Recombinant Vaccines | Epitope-Based Vaccines | Peptide Vaccines | Pooled IgG | IVIG | MMR Vaccine

Vaccination
from Fabio Bagnoli and Rino Rappuoli writing in Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Vaccination, together with the wider availability of potable water, has had the most profound positive effect on the quality of public health of any measure: during the past century, these products essentially eliminated most infectious diseases causing mortality in infants and children. Vaccines against diphtheria, tetanus, polio, measles, mumps, rubella, pneumococcus, hepatitis B and meningitis (Haemophilus influenzae and serogroup C meningococcus) have reduced the incidence and mortality of these diseases by > 97-99% (Fabio Bagnoli and Rino Rappuoli). Nevertheless, perception of vaccines in the public opinion is not completely positive. Many people are still skeptical about the real need of vaccines. This behavior has been particularly evident during the influenza A (H1N1) pandemic in 2009.

Further reading: Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Key words: Vaccines | Diphtheria | Tetanus | Polio | Measles | Mumps | Rubella | Pneumococcus | Hepatitis B | Meningitis | Haemophilus influenzae | Influenza A | Vaccine Design

April 3 - 6, 2011 Annual Conference of the Association for General an Applied Microbiology (VAAM)
Karlsruhe, Germany Further information
Main topics: Cell Biology, Environmental Microbiology, Food Microbiology, Microbial Interactions, New Imaging and other innovative Techniques, Stress Responses, White Biotechnology

Suggested reading: Microbiology Books

Key words: VAAM | Association for General an Applied Microbiology | Annual Conference | vaam2011 | Cell Biology | White Biotechnology | Stress Responses | New Imaging | Microbial Interactions | Food Microbiology | Environmental Microbiology

November 21 - 24, 2010 ESF-BU-CeBiTec Conference on Microbes and Industrial Biotechnology
Bielefeld, Germany Further information
Chair: Volker Wendisch, Bielefeld University, Institut fur Genomforschung und Systembiologie, DE, Oluf Kruse, Bielefeld University, Center for Biotechnology. Closing date for application is 10th of September, 2010.

Suggested reading: Microbiology Books

Key words: Industrial Biotechnology | ESF-BU-CeBiTec | ESF | ESF Conference

September 20 - October 2, 2010 Microscopy, Modeling and Biophysical Methods
Heidelberg, Germany Further information
EMBO Practical Course

Suggested reading: Molecular Biology Books

Key words: EMBO conference | EMBO Practical Course | Microscopy | Biophysical Methods | Modeling

I am pleased to provide the following excerpt from a book review of ABC Transporters in Microorganisms:

"of practical use to any scientist working on active transport systems whether in bacteria, parasites, or human cells. It is written in a fashion that allows readers to focus on specific topics and shows comparisons between systems. All the authors are from different disciplines but have contributed their knowledge to a cohesive book ... The book contains some excellent figures of the folding patterns of the proteins and the dynamics of how they change to import or export specific substrates ... well-organized and well-written book ... should be considered an essential reference for laboratories working in this area." from Rebecca T. Horvat (University of Kansas Medical Center, USA) writing in Doodys read more ...

ABC Transporters in Microorganisms Edited by: Alicia Ponte-Sucre ISBN: 978-1-904455-49-3 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: August 2009 Cover: hardback "well-organized and well-written ... an essential reference" (Doodys)

Key words: ABC Transporters | ABC Transporters in Microorganisms | Transport across membranes

I am pleased to provide the following excerpt from a book review of Borrelia: Molecular Biology, Host Interaction and Pathogenesis:

"This book has 18 chapters and it will cover everything you need to know about these Spirochetes from behaviour in the field to sequencing in a molecular laboratory. Each chapter seems to be written by expert in their Borrelia field and bring updated information about the state-of-art for research of simply general knowledge for this pathogen ... would definitely interest researchers and some teachers seeking research-led examples for their lectures ... this book is a fantastic source of information for scientists working on vector-borne diseases and interested in epidemiology, evolution, genomics ... I truly enjoyed reading this book and would recommend it." from Olivier A E Sparagano (Newcastle University, UK) writing in Parasites and Vectors (2010) 3: 52 read more ...

Borrelia: Molecular Biology, Host Interaction and Pathogenesis Edited by: D. Scott Samuels and Justin D. Radolf ISBN: 978-1-904455-58-5 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: March 2010 Cover: hardback "a fantastic source of information" (Parasites and Vectors)

Key words: Spirochetes | Borrelia | Vector-borne diseases | Lyme Disease | Olivier A E Sparagano Book Review

Salmonella as the paradigm for bacterial therapy of cancer: A progress report
from Robert M. Hoffman writing in Salmonella: From Genome to Function

For over 300 years it has been observed that cancer patients who became infected with bacteria sometimes experienced spontaneous remission of their cancer. Recently, there have been attempts to develop cancer treatments by using tumor-targeting bacteria. Anaerobic microorganisms, such as Clostridium, that preferentially grow in necrotic tumor areas have mostly been used. However, the resulting tumor killing was, at best, limited. Salmonella was originally developed as an antitumor agent by attenuating the bacteria with multiple mutations, including auxotrophs. These multiple auxotrophs appeared to direct the bacteria to the metastatic areas of tumors where more nutrients are available. We have developed a more effective bacterial cancer therapy strategy by targeting viable tumor tissue with Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium containing only two auxotrophic mutations. These auxotrophs grow in viable as well as necrotic areas of tumors. However, the auxotrophy severely restricts growth of these bacteria in normal tissue, making this a safe treatment. The S. Typhimurium A1-R mutant, which is auxotrophic for leucine and arginine and had been selected for high antitumor virulence, was effective as monotherapy against human prostate and breast tumors that had been orthotopically implanted in nude mice. The approach described here, where bacterial monotherapy effectively treats primary and metastatic tumors, is a significant improvement over previous bacterial tumor-therapy strategies that require combination with toxic chemotherapy. Exploitation of the tumor-killing capability of Salmonella has great potential for a new paradigm of cancer therapy.

Further reading: Salmonella: From Genome to Function

Key words: Bacterial therapy of cancer | Cancer | Cancer therapy | Salmonella cancer therapy | Clostridium | Salmonella enterica | Typhimurium | Salmonella Typhimurium | Tumor-killing Salmonella

Salmonella Biofilms: From food to human disease
from Robert W. Crawford, Geoffrey Gonzalez-Escobedo and John S. Gunn writing in Salmonella: From Genome to Function

Bacterial biofilms are increasingly implicated as burdens to food and public safety. Over the past few decades, we have learned that this sessile environment provides diverse species of bacteria selective advantages in natural, medical, and industrial ecosystems, as well as resistance to commonly administered antibiotics and protection from host immune responses during chronic infection of humans and animals. Salmonella spp. are food-borne pathogens that remain a critical health concern in impoverished and industrialized nations. In the laboratory, salmonellae have been shown to form biofilms on a variety of surfaces. These Salmonella spp. biofilms have been found to contaminate plant and animal food sources to cause human disease upon consumption, and/or to enhance salmonellae colonization of and persistence at sites of infection.

Further reading: Salmonella: From Genome to Function

Key words: Salmonella | Salmonella Biofilms | Biofilms | Biofilms | Bacterial biofilms | Food-borne pathogens | Salmonellae

Anti-Salmonella immunity: Highlighting new research in vaccines, mucosal immunology and systemic disease
from Jennifer L. Bishop, Ellen T. Arena, Kenneth W. Harder and B. Brett Finlay writing in Salmonella: From Genome to Function

Enteric fever and non-typhoidal salmonelloses (NTS) are caused by a wide variety of Salmonella enterica serovars and are a serious health threat throughout the world. Immunity to systemic typhoid and NTS requires intricate crosstalk between both innate and adaptive immune cells spanning multiple organ systems. The development of a number of new mouse and in vitro culture models suitable for studying gastroenteritis has highlighted the complexity of mucosal responses and shown how a diverse subset of cells interact within the intestinal architecture to elicit anti-Salmonella immunity. These include specific dendritic cell subsets, natural killer cells and TH17 skewed T helper cells and the repertoire of cytokines they produce, including IL-17, IL-23, IL-22 and IL-15. Furthermore, the importance of commensal microflora has been stressed in various Salmonella models, and new research has shown the various effects of prebiotics, probiotics and antibiotics on Salmonella pathogenesis. Systemic immune responses are also more explicitly understood, as the location and phenotype of cells harboring intracellular bacteria become more defined. A forthcoming book reviews these recent advances and how they are being translated into new therapies and vaccine studies in the human population.

Read more: Salmonella: From Genome to Function

Key words: Salmonella | Salmonella vaccines | Salmonella systemic disease | Salmonella mucosal immunology | Salmonella vaccine | Enteric fever | Salmonelloses | Salmonella enterica | Salmonella serovars | Salmonella pathogenesis

The intracellular lifestyle of Salmonella enterica and novel approaches to understand the adaptation to life within the Salmonella-containing vacuole
from Roopa Rajashekar and Michael Hensel writing in Salmonella: From Genome to Function

Salmonella enterica is a facultative intracellular pathogen that resides in a unique membrane-bound compartment, referred to as Salmonella-containing vacuole or SCV. Within the SCV, Salmonella is able to survive the antimicrobial activities of phagocytic cells and can rapidly multiply in a variety of host cells. Intracellular life of Salmonella is dependent on a large number of virulence traits, but the function of the type III secretion system (T3SS) encoded by Salmonella Pathogenicity Island 2 (SPI2) is of central importance. Although more than 20 effector proteins have been identified as translocated by the SPI2-T3SS, the molecular function and contribution to intracellular live is only known for a few of these proteins. Intracellular Salmonella modify basic functions of the host cell such as the structure of the microtubule cytoskeleton and induce a massive reorganization of vesicular transport and the endosomal system. Unique phenomena are the SPI2-dependent induction of extensive tubular membrane aggregations of endosomal or Golgi-derived vesicles. The SCV itself has features of a novel organelle and the fate of this compartment is controlled by the pathogen. Previous observations indicated that the SCV is arrested in the state of late endosomal compartment, but recent studies using advanced ultrastructural analyses and live cell studies indicate a complex and highly dynamic interaction of the intracellular Salmonella and their host cells.

Further reading: Salmonella: From Genome to Function

Key words: Salmonella-containing vacuole | Salmonella enterica | Salmonella | SCV | Salmonella virulence | SPI2-T3SS

Salmonella secreted virulence factors
from Fred Heffron, George Niemann, Hyunjin Yoon, Afshan Kidwai, Roslyn Brown, Jason McDermott, Richard Smith and Joshua Adkins writing in Salmonella: From Genome to Function

Research in the past twenty years has shown that Salmonella precisely manipulates their host by hierarchical secretion of virulence factors (effectors). More than 40 secreted virulence factors have been identified in Salmonella, but the function and mammalian targets of only a few are known. Effectors are directed to specific sub-cellular compartments and mammalian targets, and they mediate a diverse array of activities. Thus, the first half of this review focuses upon our understanding of effector mechanisms and their roles during infection.

However, the known effector repertoire is incomplete and the second half of this review places an emphasis on discovery. Computer analysis identified common secretion motifs and predicted that as many as 300 additional proteins may be secreted by Salmonella. In fact, mass spectrometry analysis identified a more complete secretome and found many novel, uncharacterized effector proteins. Several effectors identified in this study were small proteins of only 30-100 amino acids in length, suggesting that they are not enzymes but agonists or antagonists of specific host factors. One surprise from the mass spectrometry analysis was the identification of proteins that are secreted to mammalian cells via outer membrane vesicles. Complete characterization of the bewildering array of secreted proteins will take many years.

Further reading: Salmonella: From Genome to Function | Bacterial Secreted Proteins

Key words: Salmonella effectors | Virulence factors | Salmonella | Pathogenesis | Salmonella pathogenesis | Mass spectrometry | Salmonella secretome

New insights into the role and formation of flagella in Salmonella
from Rasika M. Harshey writing in Salmonella: From Genome to Function

The flagellum of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium is the best studied of all flagellar systems. The major function of the flagellum is to enable swimming and chemotaxis in liquid media, and swarming on surfaces. New structural information, along with biochemical, physicochemical and genetic analyses has greatly accelerated our understanding of the self-assembly of this highly sophisticated nano-machine. The study of swarming motility is a relatively new field, but has begun to reveal new roles for the flagellum, new functions for motility genes and new regulatory circuits that control the decision between motility and sessility. Morphological and functional similarities between flagella and needle complexes, discovery of partial flagellar structures that likely function in export rather than motility, and a rapidly accumulating genome database are gradually illuminating the evolutionary origins of the flagellum.

Further reading: Salmonella: From Genome to Function | Pili and Flagella

Key words: Salmonella flagella | Flagella | Salmonella enterica | Serovar | Typhimurium | Swarming motility | Salmonella chemotaxis | Salmonella flagellum

Fimbrial signature arrangements in Salmonella
from Sean-Paul Nuccio, Nicholas R. Thomson, Maria C. Fookes and Andreas J. Bäumler writing in Salmonella: From Genome to Function

The complement of fimbrial operons held within a genome represents one of the key differentiating features of the sequenced Salmonella serovars and one of the single largest sources of genetic diversity. Generically described as filamentous non-flagellar surface appendages, fimbriae (also known as pili) typically imbue an adhesive trait to the cells expressing them. While much is known about the general biology of fimbrial assembly mechanisms, the role of these structures in Salmonella pathogenesis remains poorly characterized. Here we present fimbrial operon data gathered from the seventeen completed Salmonella genome sequences and discuss its implications in Salmonella pathogenesis and dissemination.

Further reading: Salmonella: From Genome to Function | Pili and Flagella

Key words: Fimbria | Fimbriae | Salmonella | Salmonella fimbriae | Fimbrial operons | Pili | Fimbrial assembly mechanisms | Salmonella pili | Salmonella serovars

The small RNAs of Salmonella
from Sridhar Javayel, Kai Papenfort and Jörg Vogel writing in Salmonella: From Genome to Function

To date, close to one hundred distinct small noncoding RNAs (sRNAs) have been identified in Salmonella by a variety of biocomputational or wet-lab approaches including RNA sequencing. The function of more than twenty of these sRNAs is known from studies in Salmonella itself or can be inferred from conserved homologs in E. coli Many of these sRNAs act in conjunction with the RNA-chaperone Hfq to post-transcriptionally repress or activate trans-encoded target genes, but cis-antisense RNAs and regulators of protein activity are also abundantly present. In addition to a large number of sRNAs conserved in other enteric bacteria, Salmonella also expresses a set of sRNAs specific to this genus. Interestingly, such regulators have been shown to control the expression of conserved genes encoded on the "core" Salmonella genome. Conversely, conserved sRNA can act as regulators of recently acquired Salmonella-specific genes, indicating significant cross-talk of conserved and horizontally acquired elements at the RNA level. A recent review covers strategies for the identification of sRNAs as well as their characterized functional roles in Salmonella.

Further reading: Salmonella: From Genome to Function | RNA and the Regulation of Gene Expression

Key words: Small RNA | Small RNAs | Salmonella sRNAs | Small noncoding RNAs | RNA sequencing | RNA-chaperone Hfq | sRNAs | sRNA

Genomics and Pathogenesis of Salmonella enterica serovars Typhi and Paratyphi A
from Kathryn E Holt, Tim T Perkins, Gordon Dougan and Robert A Kingsley writing in Salmonella: From Genome to Function

The genomics era has transformed the way that we can study bacterial pathogens. The availability of two complete and 17 draft genomes of S. Typhi has made it possible to study the phylogenetic structure of this pathogen in unparalleled resolution, monitor gene flux, accumulation of pseudogenes, neutral mutations and loci under selective pressure. We describe the molecular basis of Salmonella Typhi pathogenesis, in particular where genomics has contributed to our understanding in the past decade. Potentially important S. Typhi-specific virulence determinants include the Vi polysaccharide capsule, the type IV pilus, and a unique repertoire of fimbria. These may account for key differences in the disease outcome of this pathogen compared with non-typhoidal serotypes. Genome comparison with the closely related serotype S. Paratyphi A identifies a core set of pseudogenes, some of which emerged independently, that may define important features of genome degradation associated with host restriction and pathogenesis of invasive disease. Geo-phylogenetics of S. Typhi constructed from single nucleotide polymorphism data from high throughput draft genome sequences is now being applied to study molecular epidemiology in the field.

Further reading: Salmonella: From Genome to Function

Key words: Salmonella | Salmonella serovars | Salmonella Typhi | Salmonella Paratyphi A | Salmonella genomics | Paratyphi A | Non-typhoidal serotypes | Salmonella pseudogenes

Evolutionary trends associated with niche specialization as modeled by whole genome analysis of egg-contaminating Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis
from Jean Guard, Devendra Shah, Cesar A. Morales and Doug Call writing in Salmonella: From Genome to Function

The mosaic nature of the Salmonella enterica genome facilitates its access to multiple environments. Many large scale genomic events have been described that contribute to the combinatorial complexity of the pathogenic Salmonellae. However, the impact of small scale genetic change occurring at the level of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) on the emergence of niche specialization is just now becoming appreciated. A recent review describes concepts behind the evolution that culminated in the remarkable ability of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis to contaminate and survive in the internal content of eggs produced by otherwise healthy hens. Evidence suggests that combinations of SNPs facilitate niche specialization by Salmonella enterica. However, few typing methods incorporate unbiased strategies for their detection. Selection of appropriate biological assays for ranking SNPs and combinations of SNPs for their impact on the ability of Salmonella enterica to propagate outbreaks, pandemics and disease will be a significant challenge to improve the safety of the food supply.

Further reading: Salmonella: From Genome to Function

Key words: Salmonella | Salmonella enterica | Salmonellae | Single nucleotide polymorphism | Salmonella SNPs | Salmonella niche specialization | Salmonella Enteritidis | Whole genome analysis

High-throughput screening to determine the genetic requirements for Salmonella survival under different growth conditions
from Mollie Megan Reynolds, Rocio Canals, Michael McClelland and Helene Andrews-Polymenis writing in Salmonella: From Genome to Function

Salmonella species are capable of survival in a wide range of niches, both in the environment and in an infected host. Genetic requirements for survival of Salmonella in different niches have traditionally been identified using gene expression and forward genetics. The availability of complete genome sequences, microarray technology, and cost-effective new sequencing capabilities enabled increasingly efficient high-throughput analyses of Salmonella genomes to identify elements that contribute to survival in these niches. A recent review describes many of the high-throughput tools that have been developed over the past two decades, and the genetic requirements for Salmonella survival that have been identified using these techniques.

Further reading: Salmonella: From Genome to Function

Key words: Salmonella | Gene expression | High-throughput screening | Salmonella growth conditions | Salmonella Forward Genetics | Complete genome sequence | Microarray technology | High-throughput tools | High-throughput analysis

Comparison of Salmonella genomes
from Ye Feng, Wei-Qiao Liu, Kenneth E. Sanderson, and Shu-Lin Liu writing in Salmonella: From Genome to Function:

Salmonella contains over 2600 known lineages, each with distinct biological characteristics, including differences in the niche in which they dwell and the nature of diseases they may cause in their hosts. Genomic sequence analysis is beginning to reveal the genetic basis that determines the phenotypic differences among them. Comparison of eight sequenced genomes of Salmonella subgroup I lineages, which infect warm-blooded animals including humans, demonstrates that these pathogens share about 90% of their genes (the "core" genome), with the remaining ca. 10% genes being unique to each of the lineages (the "accessory" genome). Prophages and Salmonella Pathogenicity Islands (SPIs) are the main components of the accessory genome. Insertion of large DNA segments, such as SPI7 in S. Typhi, may disrupt physical balance of the genome between replication origin and terminus and rearrangements of the genome, such as inversions or translocations mediated by homologous sites (rrn operons, prophages, IS200, etc.) may accelerate rebalancing of the genome. Laterally transferred genes are the main driving force in Salmonella evolution and speciation; evidence exists indicating that mismatch repair genes may spontaneously regulate bacterial mutability through allele conversion to facilitate or inhibit incorporation of foreign DNA. Further studies may help elucidate the genetic basis of distinct pathogeneses and host ranges among the Salmonella pathogens.

Further reading: Salmonella: From Genome to Function

Key words: Salmonella | Genomic sequence analysis | Prophage | Salmonella prophage | Salmonella phages | Salmonella Pathogenicity Islands | SPI7 | Salmonella Typhi | IS200 | Salmonella evolution

Typing phages and prophages of Salmonella
from Wolfgang Rabsch, Sandra Truepschuch, Daniel Windhorst and Roman G. Gerlach writing in Salmonella: From Genome to Function:

Most Salmonella strains contain prophages or remnant phages and release them spontaneously. Special bacteriophages were developed and used in phage typing systems for epidemiological work all over the world since 1947 to control salmonellosis. This method provides fast and inexpensive characterization of frequent serovars such as S. Typhimurium or S. Typhi on the sub-serovar level and is especially useful for primary analysis before investigation by other, more expensive molecular techniques such as sequencing. Prophages are themselves not only variable elements in a chromosome but also variable by module exchange within the prophage genome, thus providing a high discriminating power. The availability of several genome sequences of different Salmonella serovars has recently led to the identification of new prophage-like elements. The prophages present in serovars Typhimurium, Enteritidis and Typhi are discussed. Salmonella phages frequently carry foreign DNA, so called morons. These morons are not necessary for phage functions but provide a benefit for the host. A list of some new morons found in different Salmonella serovars is presented. Recently, a monophasic variant of S. Typhimurium mainly belonging to Anderson phage type DT193 has become one of the dominant causes of salmonellosis in Germany and other European countries. These strains with the antigenic formula 4,[5],12:i:- do not express the 2^nd phase flagellum. Investigation of their prophage attachment sites showed that the sites for Gifsy-1, Gifsy-2 and ST64B were occupied by the respective prophages. In about 90% of the monophasic DT193 strains the P22/ST64T attachment site was occupied by a novel 18.4 kb fragment, containing several open reading frames with significant similiarity to phage-related genes.

Further reading: Salmonella: From Genome to Function | Bacteriophage: Genetics and Molecular Biology

Key words: Salmonella | Prophage | Phage | Bacteriophage | Bacteriophages | Phage typing system | Salmonellosis | Salmonella serovars | Salmonella Typhimurium | Salmonella Typhi | Salmonella Enteritidis | Salmonella phages | Prophage attachment site

New approaches in sub-species level Salmonella classification
from Burkhard Malorny, Elisabeth Hauser and Ralf Dieckmann writing in Salmonella: From Genome to Function:

Salmonellae form a complex group of bacteria consisting of two species, 6 subspecies and more than 2,500 serovars (serotypes). Salmonella identification below species level is most often limited to phenotypic typing methods such as biochemical and serological identification, which are costly, time-consuming and do not always reflect the evolution of Salmonella groups. Newer methods for Salmonella typing and subtyping include genome-based methods such as pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), Multiple Loci VNTR Analysis (MLVA), Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and (multiplex-) PCR-based methods. In the last years further molecular typing technologies were evaluated for this purpose. A recent review discusses some of these emerging technologies and gives an outlook on future developments with a focus on oligonucleotide microarrays, spectroscopic methods such as MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and special developments such as bead-based suspension arrays using Luminex technology and DNA sequence-based approaches. These new techniques promise significant advantages compared to traditional culture-based methods with respect to speed, ease of use, reliability and automation.

Further reading: Salmonella: From Genome to Function

Key words: Salmonellae | Salmonella serovars | Salmonella serotypes | Salmonella | Phenotypic typing methods | Pulsed field gel electrophoresis | PFGE | Multiple Loci VNTR Analysis | MLVA | Multilocus sequence typing | MLST | MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry | MALDI-TOF | Luminex technology | Bead-based suspension arrays

RT-PCR Optimization Strategies
from Martina Reiter and Michael W. Pfaffl writing in PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

PCR technology is based on a simple principle; an enzymatic reaction that increases the amount of nucleic acids initially present in a sample but this powerful method makes it possible to detect specific mRNA transcripts in any biological sample by the application of RT-PCR. The RT-PCR quantitative analysis workflow has several steps, each of which is crucial to the success of the experiment. It starts with a sampling step, followed by nucleic acid extraction and stabilization, cDNA synthesis and finally the qPCR where the mRNA quantification takes place. PCR itself is quite a stable reaction with reproducibility between 2-8% but the number and nature of the pre-PCR steps mean that there are many sources of experimental variance in the workflow. Reliable data can only be produced when the experimental variance is minimized, so the sources of variation must be identified and optimized for each step of each experiment. Typically, however, the pre-PCR steps are neglected and optimization is done for PCR reaction only. Optimization of the whole RT-PCR workflow is important and recommendations to reduce experimental variance and produce more reproducible and reliable results should be followed.

Further reading: PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

Key words: PCR Technology | RT-PCR | RT-PCR quantitative analysis workflow | qPCR | mRNA quantification | PCR reproducibility | Pre-PCR steps | RT-PCR workflow

The new book on Caliciviruses: Molecular and Cellular Virology edited by Grant S. Hansman, Xi Jason Jiang and Kim Y. Green has been published and is available from library suppliers and bookshops read more ...

Caliciviruses: Molecular and Cellular Virology Edited by: Grant S. Hansman, Xi Jason Jiang and Kim Y. Green ISBN: 978-1-904455-63-9 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: April 2010 Cover: hardback

read more ...

Key words: Calicivirus | Caliciviruses

December 8 - 10, 2010 International Symposium on Soil Metagenomics
Braunschweig, Germany Further information

The objective and challenge of this Symposium is to open our minds to the new potentials of next generation sequencing, to question our traditional approaches, and to explore and discuss how we can utilize those novel datasets. Which questions can we now dare to address in soil ecology and how can we approach the problems of scales to further unveil the secrets of the huge microbial biodiversity that we find on Earth? Discussions at the launch of a new leap forward in soil microbiology and ecology.
Suggested reading:
Streptomyces: Molecular Biology and Biotechnology
Metagenomics: Theory, Methods and Applications

Key words: Metagenomics | International Symposium on Soil Metagenomics | Soil Metagenomics

October 13 - 16, 2010 The Non-Coding Genome
Heidelberg, Germany Further information

This symposium will provide an interdisciplinary discussion of the roles of non-coding RNAs with the aim of enhancing our understanding of gene regulation and function. Topics will include recent discoveries in the fields of prokaryotic and eukaryotic long and short non-coding RNAs. The functional roles of non-coding RNAs in a wide variety of cell processes will be discussed.
Suggested reading: RNA Interference and Viruses: Current Innovations and Future Trends

Key words: The Non-Coding Genome

September 22 - 25, 2010 40th Annual Meeting of the German Society for Immunology (DGfI)
Leipzig, Germany Further information

Annual Meeting of the German Society for Immunology. Symposia and workshops. Topics include Basic Immunology, Applied Immunology, Interventional Immunology. Conference chair is Prof. Dr. Frank Emmrich.
Suggested reading: Microbiology Books

Key words: German Society for Immunology

September 22 - 25, 2010 Power of Microbes in Industry and Environment 2010
Malinska, Croatia Further information

Power of microbes in industry and environment. Organized by the Croatian, Hungarian and Slovenian microbiological societies and supported by FEMS.
Suggested reading: Environmental Microbiology Books

Key words: Microbes in Industry and Environment

August 8 - 10, 2010 International Conference on Diseases in Nature Communicable to Man
Fairbanks, Alaska, USA Further information

The annual International Conference on Diseases in Nature Communicable to Man seeks to increase knowledge and awareness of zoonotic disease within the medical and public health communities. INCDNCM conferences are multidisciplinary, including presentations on viral, rickettsial, bacterial, parasitic, and prion-related diseases acquired from natural sources, including animals (wild or domestic), contaminated water or food supplies, arthropod vectors and other sources. Submitted presentations are typically 10-15 minutes in length and can describe epidemiological, clinical, ecological, diagnostic or laboratory-related aspects of the above diseases. Student presentations are encouraged. The R.R. Parker Memorial Lecture, presented during the banquet, features an invited specialist in an aspect of zoonotic disease.
Suggested reading: Anaerobic Parasitic Protozoa: Genomics and Molecular Biology

Key words: International Conference on Diseases in Nature Communicable to Man

No matter how good you are at PCR, you can always learn something from the speakers we have lined up for our Getting the most out of PCR live online seminar series. These guy eat, sleep and drink PCR.

Next up we have MIQE Guidelines Uncloaked, in which Greg Shipley will give you the inside track on the requirements you need to satisfy to make sure your PCR results are suitable for publication. You'd be mad to miss it.

This event goes out live tomorrow (Tue 8th June) at 9am Pacific / 12pm Eastern / 5pm BST (UK) / 6pm CET. Click here to secure one of the remaining places on this live event.

You can also click here to take a look at our archive for this series, which now contains:

Magic in Solution: An Introduction and Brief History of PCR
Speaker: Carl Wittwer

Obtaining Maximum PCR Sensitivity and Specificity
Speaker: Cameron N. Gundry Attendence: 125

Significance of Controls and Standard Curves in PCR
Speaker: Ian Kavanagh

Key words: MIQE | Seminars | Online PCR Seminar

I am pleased to provide the following excerpt from a book review of Microbial Toxins: Current Research and Future Trends:

"the book serves well the molecular microbiologist ... not only well-documented but timely and inspiring" from Robert D. Johnson (St. George's University, NJ, USA) writing in Inoculum (2010) 61: 21-22 read more ...

Microbial Toxins: Current Research and Future Trends Edited by: ISBN: 978-1-904455-44-8 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: May 2009 Cover: hardback "timely and inspiring" (Mycological Society)

Key words: Toxins | Toxin | Microbial Toxin | Microbial Toxins

I am pleased to provide the following excerpt from a book review of Lentiviruses and Macrophages: Molecular and Cellular Interactions:

"excellent and comprehensive ... the reference lists of virtually all chapters are remarkably up-to-date ... this volume is highly recommended to virologists, molecular biologists, immunologists, epidemiologists and infectious disease physicians." from Ulrich Desselberger (Cambridge, UK) writing in Microbiology Today read more ...

Lentiviruses and Macrophages: Molecular and Cellular Interactions Edited by: Moira Desport ISBN: 978-1-904455-60-8 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: March 2010 Cover: hardback "highly recommended" (Microbiology Today)

Key words: Lentivirus | Lentiviruses | Lentiviruses and Macrophages

I am pleased to provide the following excerpt from a book review of RNA Interference and Viruses: Current Innovations and Future Trends:

"This book provides a comprehensive review of the interface between RNA interference and viruses. It lives up to its title by being commendably up-to-date for a multi-author compilation of this type ... excellent and engaging" from Laurence Tiley (University of Cambridge, UK) writing in Microbiology Today read more ...

RNA Interference and Viruses: Current Innovations and Future Trends Edited by: Miguel Angel Martínez ISBN: 978-1-904455-56-1 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: February 2010 Cover: hardback "a comprehensive review" (Microbiology Today)

Key words: RNAi | RNA Interference and Viruses | RNA interference | RNA

I am pleased to provide the following excerpt from a book review of Neisseria: Molecular Mechanisms of Pathogenesis:

"focuses effectively on (the) molecular approach to neisserial pathogenicity ... authoritative reviews of gene regulation, anaerobic survival, genome plasticity, epidemiology, vaccine development and the development of antibiotic resistance ... well-referenced" from Jeff Cole (University of Birmingham, UK) writing in Microbiology Today read more ...

Neisseria: Molecular Mechanisms of Pathogenesis Edited by: Caroline Genco and Lee Wetzler ISBN: 978-1-904455-51-6 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: January 2010 Cover: hardback "authoritative reviews" (Microbiology Today)

Key words: N. gonorrhoeae | N. meningitidis | Neisseria

I am pleased to provide the following excerpt from a book review of Aspergillus: Molecular Biology and Genomics:

"a readable but authoritive overview of current knowledge and approaches ... Its approach is firmly post-genomic, emphasizing the new insights that can be gained ... This book will be a good institutional purchase to support advanced teaching but also for personal or laboratory purchase for researchers within industry." from Meriel G. Jones (University of Liverpool, UK) writing in Microbiology Today read more ...

Aspergillus: Molecular Biology and Genomics Edited by: Masayuki Machida and Katsuya Gomi ISBN: 978-1-904455-53-0 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: January 2010 Cover: hardback "authoritive overview" (Microbiology Today)

Key words: Aspergillus

I am pleased to provide the following excerpt from a book review of Anaerobic Parasitic Protozoa: Genomics and Molecular Biology:

"beautifully produced and attractively packaged hardbound book of authoritative edited reviews ... very well written and edited and so is easy to read even for non-specialists." from Kevin M. Tyler (University East Anglia, Norwich) writing in Parasites and Vectors (2010) 3: 45 read more ...

Anaerobic Parasitic Protozoa: Genomics and Molecular Biology Edited by: C. Graham Clark, Patricia J. Johnson and Rodney D. Adam ISBN: 978-1-904455-61-5 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: March 2010 Cover: hardback "very well written" (Parasites and Vectors)

Key words: Protozoa | Anaerobic Parasitic Protozoa | Parasitic Protozoa

Paul Dyson (Institute of Life Sciences, School of Medicine, Swansea, UK) presents a new book on Streptomyces: Molecular Biology and Biotechnology
Streptomycetes are Gram-positive, high GC-content, sporulating bacteria found predominantly in soil. Streptomycetes are characterised by a complex secondary metabolism producing antibiotic compounds and other metabolites with medicinal properties. In recent years genomic studies, genomic mining and biotechnological approaches have been employed in the search for new antibiotics and other drugs.
With contributions from some of the leading scientists in the field, this volume documents recent research and development in streptomycetes genomics, physiology and metabolism. With a focus on biotechnology and genomics, the book provides an excellent source of up-to-date information. Topics include: genome architecture, conjugative genetic elements, differentiation, protein secretion, central carbon metabolic pathways, regulation of nitrogen assimilation, phosphate control of metabolism, gamma-butyrolactones and their role in antibiotic regulation, clavulanic acid and clavams, genome-guided exploration, gene clusters for bioactive natural products, genomics of cytochromes p450.

Streptomyces: Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Edited by: Paul Dyson ISBN: 978-1-904455-77-6 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: January 2011 Cover: hardback

Essential reading for research scientists, biotechnologists, graduate students and other professionals involved in streptomycetes research, antibiotic and antimicrobial development, drug discovery, soil microbiology and related fields. A recommended text for all microbiology laboratories.

Key words: Streptomyces | Antimicrobials | Streptomycetes | Spore | Spore-forming bacteria | Spores

Sandra K. Weller (Board of Trustees Distinguished Professor and Chair of Molecular, Microbial and Structural Biology, Dept Microbiology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington Avenue, Farmington, CT , USA) presents a new book on Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology

Alphaherpesviruses are a fascinating group of DNA viruses that includes important human pathogens such as herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), HSV-2, and varicella-zoster virus (VZV): the causative agents of cold sores, genital ulcerous disease, and chickenpox/shingles, respectively. A key attribute of these viruses is their ability to establish lifelong latent infection in the peripheral nervous system of the host. Such persistence requires subversion of the host's immune system and intrinsic antiviral defense mechanisms. Understanding the mechanisms of the immune evasion and what triggers viral reactivation is a major challenge for today's researchers. This has prompted enormous research efforts into understanding the molecular and cellular biology of these viruses.

This up-to-date and comprehensive volume aims to distill the most important research in this area providing a timely overview of the field. Topics covered include: transcriptional regulation, DNA replication, translational control, virus entry and capsid assembly, the role of microRNAs in infection and oncolytic vectors for cancer therapy. In addition there is coverage of virus-host interactions, including apoptosis, subversion of host protein quality control and DNA damage response pathways, autophagy, establishment and reactivation from latency, interferon responses, immunity and vaccine development. Essential reading for everyone working with alphaherpesviruses and of interest to all virologists working on latent infections.

Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology Edited by: Sandra K. Weller ISBN: 978-1-904455-76-9 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: March 2011 Cover: hardback

Key words: Alphaherpesviruses

Carole Caranta, Miguel A. Aranda, Mark Tepfer and J.J. Lopez-Moya (INRA-UR , Génétique et Amélioration des Fruits et Légumes, Montfavet cedex, France;Centro de Edafología y Biología Aplicada del Segura (CEBAS), CSIC, Espinardo, Murcia, Spain;Laboratoire de Biologie Cellulaire, INRA, F Versailles Cedex, France;IBMB, Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG) CSIC-IRTA-UAB, Barcelona, Spain, respectively) present a new book on Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Viruses that infect plants are responsible for reduction in both yield and quality of crops around the world, and are thus of great economic importance. This has provided the impetus for the extensive research into the molecular and cellular biology of these pathogens and into their interaction with their plant hosts and their vectors. However interest in plant viruses extends beyond their ability to damage crops. Many plant viruses, for example tobacco mosaic virus, have been used as model systems to provide basic understanding of how viruses express genes and replicate. Others permitted the elucidation of the processes underlying RNA silencing, now recognised as a core epigenetic mechanism underpinning numerous areas of biology.

This book attests to the huge diversity of research in plant molecular virology. Written by world authorities in the field, the book opens with two chapters on the translation and replication of viral RNA. Following chapters cover topics such as viral movement within and between plants, plant responses to viral infection, antiviral control measures, virus evolution, and newly emerging plant viruses. To close there are two chapters on biotechnological applications of plant viruses. Throughout the book the focus is on the most recent, cutting-edge research, making this book essential reading for everyone, from researchers and scholars to students, working with plant viruses.

Recent Advances in Plant Virology Edited by: Carole Caranta, Miguel A. Aranda, Mark Tepfer and J.J. Lopez-Moya ISBN: 978-1-904455-75-2 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: February 2011 Cover: hardback

Key words: Plant viruses | tobacco mosaic virus