from Philipe A.M. Gobeil and David A. Leib writing in Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology:

Autophagy is a rapidly growing area of biomedical research with broad relevance to fields including microbiology, cell biology, immunology, cancer biology, and neurodegeneration. In infection and immunity, it is emerging as a pivotal pathway mediating direct pathogen degradation as well as for the development of robust innate and adaptive immune responses. Successful pathogens have evolved to either evade or harness the autophagy pathway to further their replication and pathogenesis. In a recent review the basic aspects of autophagy will be described, along with its role in cellular homeostasis, and the development of immunity. The primary focus is a survey of past and recent research defining the interplay of autophagy and the herpesviruses, with particular reference to immune evasion and pathogenesis.

Further reading: Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology

Key words: Autophagy | Infection and immunity | Autophagy and the herpesviruses

from Christine M. Livingston, Christos Kyratsous, Saul Silverstein and Sandra K. Weller writing in Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology:

Molecular chaperone proteins have long been recognized to play diverse and important roles in the life cycles of viruses from bacteriophage to SV40 to herpesviruses. The alphaherpesviruses HSV-1 and VZV not only interact with and reorganize cellular chaperones and co-chaperones but alphaherpesviruses also encode their own molecular chaperones. Cellular chaperones such as Hsp70, Hsc70 and Hsp90 are required for efficient production of infectious virus in that they play essential roles in nuclear transport of viral proteins, protein quality control and maintenance of cellular homeostasis during viral infection. These findings raise the possibility that molecular chaperones could be utilized as effective targets for antiviral therapy. A recent review reviews the evidence that replication of the human alphaherpesviruses herpes simplex virus type 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and 2) and varicella zoster virus (VZV) requires the activities of cellular and viral molecular chaperones.

Further reading: Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology

Key words: Alphaherpesvirus | Alphaherpesvirus Infection | Molecular Chaperones | Molecular chaperone proteins | Herpesviruses | Alphaherpesviruses | Molecular chaperone

from Paul T. Sobol and Karen L. Mossman writing in Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology:

Key to the innate immune response to alpha herpesvirus infection is the expression and secretion of type I interferons (IFNs). This family of cytokines bolsters a host offensive to invading pathogens by inducing IFN stimulated genes (ISGs). Not surprisingly, the evolutionary pressure faced by alpha herpesviruses to adapt to the type I IFN response has shaped alpha herpesvirus evolution at the very interface of the virus-host interaction. The cumulative effects of type I IFN expression on alpha herpesvirus replication in vitro and dissemination in vivo are discussed in a recent review, along with mechanisms employed by these viruses to subvert the type I IFN response. Alpha herpesviruses block type I IFN production, inhibit the effects of type I IFN signal transduction and suppress downstream IFN-dependent effector pathways with the aims of augmenting viral replication and dissemination.

Further reading: Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology

Key words: Interferon | Interferon Responses | Herpesviruses | Alpha herpesvirus | Type I interferons | IFNs | Cytokines

from Samuel Rabkin writing in Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology:

Oncolytic HSV (oHSV) virotherapy is a promising new strategy for cancer therapy, converting a human pathogen into a therapeutic agent. This takes advantage of the biology of HSV, by introducing genetic alterations that limit virus replication and cytotoxicity to transformed cancer cells while making the virus non-permissive in normal cells. HSV encodes a large number of genes that are non-essential for growth in tissue culture cells, but are nevertheless important for growth in post-mitotic cells and for interfering with intrinsic antiviral and innate immune responses. Many of the cellular pathways regulating growth and antiviral responses are disrupted in cancer cells, which means that viral gene products allowing replication in normal cells are not necessary in cancer cells. In considering the development of an infectious agent for human use, safety is a critical consideration. Therefore mutations targeting cancer cells must be combined with mutations in genes that play important roles in vivo; causing pathogenicity, spread through the nervous system and other organs, latency and reactivation, and adaptive immune responses. This review will focus more on the virological aspects of oHSV vectors and less on the cancer cell target, and describe the multiple strategies and genes involved in generating oHSV vectors. However, it is important to bear in mind that the effect of different HSV mutations will be highly dependent upon the physiology of the particular type of cancer cell and tumor, and that each oHSV vector will be more effective in some tumor types, so that it is unlikely that any one oHSV will be optimal for all types of cancer.

Further reading: Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology

Key words: Oncolytic HSV | Cancer Therapy | Oncolytic HSV Vectors | HSV | oHSV | HSV Cancer Therapy | Virotherapy

from David C. Bloom and Dacia L. Kwiatkowski writing in Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology:

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) latency is characterized by the persistence of viral genomes as episomes in the nuclei of sensory neurons. During this period only one region of the genome is abundantly transcribed: the region encoding the latency-associated transcripts (LATs). The LAT domain is transcriptionally complex, and while the predominant species that accumulates during latency is a 2.0 kb stable intron, other RNA species are transcribed from this region of the genome, including a number of lytic or acute-phase transcripts. In addition, a number of microRNA (miRNA) and non-miRNA small RNAs have recently been mapped to the LAT region of the genome. HSV-1 recombinant viruses with deletions of the LAT promoter exhibit reactivation deficits in a number of animal models, and there is evidence that other LAT deletion mutants also possess altered establishment and virulence properties. The phenotypic complexity associated with this region, as well as evidence that the LATs may play a role in suppressing latent gene expression, suggests that the LAT locus may function as a regulator to modulate the transcription of key lytic and latent genes.

Further reading: Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology

Key words: Herpes Simplex Virus | Alphaherpesvirus | Alphaherpesviruses | HSV | HSV-1 | HSV-1 Latency | LATS | Herpes simplex virus type 1 | Latency | LAT domain | MicroRNA | miRNAs

from Matthew D. Weitzman and Sandra K. Weller writing in Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology:

The cellular DNA damage machinery responds to virus infection and the foreign genomes that accumulate in the nuclei of infected cells. Many DNA viruses have been shown to manipulate the cellular DNA damage response pathways in order to create environments conducive to their own replication. Some cellular factors are activated during infection while others are inactivated.

Further reading: Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology

Key words: HSV-1 | HSV-1 DNA Damage Response | DNA viruses | Alphaherpesvirus | Alphaherpesviruses | DNA damage response pathways

from Stacey A. Leisenfelder and Sandra K. Weller writing in Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology:

The cis- and trans-acting elements required for DNA synthesis of Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) have been identified, and genetic and biochemical analyses have provided important insights into how they work together to replicate the large double-stranded viral genome. Furthermore, viral enzymes involved in DNA replication have provided a rich store of useful targets for antiviral therapy against herpesviruses. Despite these advances, many questions remain unresolved concerning the overall mechanism of genome replication. For instance, it has long been recognized that the products of viral DNA replication are head-to-tail concatemers; however, it is not clear how these concatemers are generated. A recent review summarizes the known functions of viral replication proteins and explore the possibility that these viral proteins may function in combination with cellular proteins to produce concatemers suitable for packaging into preformed viral capsids.

Further reading: Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology

Key words: HSV | HSV Replication | HSV-1 Replication | Herpes Simplex Virus | Herpesvirus | HSV-1 | HSV-1 DNA Replication

from Stephen A. Rice writing in Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology:

ICP22 is the least characterized of the five herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) immediate-early (IE) proteins. However, accumulating evidence indicates that it carries out a number of interesting regulatory activities inside the infected cell. These include the enhancement of viral gene expression, the modification of RNA polymerase II (RNAP II), and the reorganization of host cell molecular chaperones into nuclear inclusion bodies. Recent studies of engineered HSV-1 mutants indicate that certain of ICP22's activities are genetically separable from each other. Thus, similar to several other of the IE proteins, ICP22 appears to be a multifunctional, multi-domain polypeptide. A recent review summarizes the current state of knowledge concerning ICP22 and its varied regulatory roles during the productive HSV-1 infection.

Further reading: Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology

Key words: HSV | HSV-1 Replication | ICP22 | HSV ICP22 | HSV RNA polymerase II | HSV-1 Immediate-early proteins

from Roger D. Everett writing in Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology:

In recent years it has become apparent that, in addition to the acquired and innate defences against virus infection, there is also a third aspect to antiviral defences that operates at the intracellular level. This concept is known as intrinsic resistance, intrinsic antiviral defence or intrinsic immunity. Its key features include constitutively expressed cellular proteins that restrict viral gene expression, and viral regulatory proteins that counteract the actions of the cellular inhibitors. A recent review reviews the cellular proteins and pathways that are thought to be involved in intrinsic resistance to HSV-1 infection, and the mechanisms by which these are inactivated by ICP0, an important viral regulatory protein. The phenotype of ICP0 null mutant HSV-1 is described to give a background to the phenomenon, then the principal properties of ICP0 itself are summarised. The effects of ICP0 on components of cellular nuclear structures known as ND10 or PML nuclear bodies are reviewed, then the possible roles of these proteins in intrinsic resistance are discussed. The relationships between ICP0, intrinsic resistance and the regulation of viral chromatin structure are considered, and finally the parallels between ICP0 and related proteins expressed by other alphaherpesviruses are described. Intrinsic resistance and the manner in which viruses overcome it are important aspects of the biology of virus infection, but we have much to learn before we achieve a complete understanding of the viral and cellular proteins that are involved.

Further reading: Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology

Key words: Alphaherpesviruses | Alphaherpesvirus | HSV | HSV-1 infection | Resistance to HSV | HSV-1 Resistance

from Rozanne M. Sandri-Goldin writing in Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology:

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) protein ICP27 is a multifunctional regulator that is essential for HSV-1 infection. ICP27 performs a number of different functions during infection that include inhibiting cellular pre-mRNA splicing, stimulating viral early and late gene transcription by recruiting cellular RNA polymerase II to viral replication sites, binding and exporting viral RNA to the cytoplasm and stimulating translation of some HSV-1 transcripts by binding translation initiation factors. ICP27 also recruits Hsc70 to nuclear foci (VICE domains) that are enriched in chaperones and components of the proteasome, and which are believed to be involved in nuclear protein quality control. ICP27 interacts with a number of proteins and it binds RNA. Post-translational modifications have been demonstrated to regulate ICP27's interactions with several proteins. NMR analysis of the N-terminus showed that it is highly flexible, which may be necessary for switching between different protein interactions. Further, ICP27 undergoes a head-to-tail intramolecular association that may also regulate its interactions, especially with proteins that require that both the N- and C-termini of ICP27 be intact for interaction. A recent review covers the different activities of ICP27 and what we know about how these activities are regulated.

Further reading: Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology

Key words: Multifunctional regulator | ICP27 | ICP27 Multifunctional regulator | HSV-1 infection

from Keith R. Jerome writing in Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology:

HSV presents unique challenges to the human immune system. Most of these result from the ability of the virus to establish latency in neurons of the dorsal root ganglia. The first line of defense against the initial establishment of latent infection is the innate immune response. The innate response relies on a variety of cell types recognizing HSV infection via pattern recognition receptors, including toll-like receptors. After exposure, the adaptive immune response is triggered. However, the adaptive response must deal with reactivation of HSV from the latently infected neuron, which in turn seeds mucosal sites with virus. T cells are especially important in this, and likely control both the extent of reactivation from latently infected neurons as well as the extent of viral replication at mucosal sites. Not surprising, HSV has evolved a wide variety of immune evasion mechanisms to tip this balance in its favor and facilitate transmission to new hosts. The study of HSV and its interaction with the host immune system has provided insights into the function of both, and may ultimately facilitate the development of an effective HSV vaccine.

Further reading: Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology

Key words: Herpes Simplex Virus | Herpes virus | Herpes viruses | Herpesvirus | Herpesviruses

from Timothy E. Dudek and David M. Knipe writing in Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology:

Vaccines have been among the most effective public health approaches for protecting individuals against viral disease, with two of the world's most successful vaccines being against smallpox virus and poliovirus. Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) is a nearly ubiquitous pathogen, and the worldwide prevalence of herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) continues to increase. These two pathogens cause significant morbidity and mortality among the general population, but in particular in neonates and immunocompromised individuals. Perhaps most significantly, there is a 3-4 fold increased risk of HIV acquisition in HSV-2 infected individuals. To date, attempts at producing a vaccine against HSV have not been successful, but each attempt has brought insights into what may be required for an effective vaccine. Furthermore, intense studies into the immunology of HSV infection and the resources that have been put into vaccine design and development have recently yielded knowledge that will be necessary to achieve the goal of a highly effective vaccine against HSV.

Further reading: Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology

Key words: HSV | Herpes Simplex Virus | Herpes virus | Herpes viruses | Smallpox virus | Poliovirus | Herpesvirus | Herpesviruses

December 2 - 5, 2010 Respiratory Synctial Virus Symposium

Rotterdam, Netherlands Further information
The symposium is the flagship event for leading investigators engaged in RSV research around the world. The objectives of the symposium are to provide a forum to help develop and deliver advancements in RSV research and to provide excellent peer-to-peer networking. The symposium will cover the following topics: Pathogenesis, Structure, Entry, Replication and Cell Biology, Clinical and Diagnostic Aspects, Immunology: Innate and Adaptive, Vaccine Development and Therapeutics: Antiviral and Other Strategies
Suggested reading: Virology Books

Key words: Respiratory Synctial Virus | RSV | RSV research

September 11 - 14, 2010 Fourth ESWI International Conference

Malta Further information
Fourth ESWI International Conference devoted to influenza to be held in Malta.The meeting will provide comprehensive scientific coverage of all disciplines involved in influenza prevention, control and treatment. Top-level scientific sessions with specific attention for new developments are the core of the conference. Additionally, the conference has a clearly delineated programme for public health officials and opinion leaders in health care work. These sessions also cover a broad field of interest and will certainly include an evaluation of the H1N1 influenza pandemic.
Suggested reading: Influenza: Molecular Virology

Key words: Influenza | Influenza virology | Influenza virus | ESWI International Conference | Influenza A | H1N1

Plant Viral Vectors for Protein Expression
from Yuri Y. Gleba and Anatoli Giritch writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Plant-virus-driven transient expression of heterologous proteins is the basis of several mature manufacturing processes that are currently being used for the production of multiple proteins including vaccine antigens and antibodies. Viral vectors have also become useful tools for research. In recent years, advances have been made both in the development of first-generation vectors (those that employ the 'full virus' strategy) as well as second-generation vectors designed using the 'deconstructed virus' approach. This second strategy relies on Agrobacterium as a vector to deliver DNA copies of one or more viral RNA replicons. Among the most often used viral backbones are those of Tobacco mosaic virus, Potato virus X, and Cowpea mosaic virus. Prototypes of industrial processes that provide for high-yield, rapid scale-up, and fast manufacturing have been recently developed using viral vectors, with several manufacturing facilities compliant with good manufacturing practices (GMP) in place, and a number of pharmaceutical proteins currently in pre-clinical and clinical trials.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Expression of heterologous proteins | Tobacco mosaic virus | Potato virus X | Cowpea mosaic virus

Virus Particles and the Uses of Such Particles in Bio- and Nanotechnology
from George P. Lomonossoff writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

The capsids of most plant viruses are simple and robust structures consisting of multiple copies of one or a few types of protein subunit arranged with either icosahedral or helical symmetry. The capsids can be produced in large quantities either by the infection of plants or by the expression of the subunit(s) in a variety of heterologous systems. In view of their relative simplicity and ease of production, plant virus particles or virus-like particles (VLPs) have attracted much interest over the past 20 years for applications in both bio- and nanotechnology. As result, plant virus particles have been subjected to both genetic and chemical modification, have been used to encapsulate foreign material and have, themselves, been incorporated into supramolecular structures.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications | Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications | Virology Publications

Key words: Capsids | Virus | Nanotechnology | Plant virus particles | Virus-like particles | VLPs

Endogenous Viral Sequences in Plant Genomes
from Pierre-Yves Teycheney and Andrew D.W. Geering writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Endogenous viral sequences from members of two virus families, the Caulimoviridae and Geminiviridae, have been discovered in several monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plant species. For the most part, these sequences are replication-defective but those capable of causing infection have been discovered in tobacco (Nicotiana edwardsonii), petunia (Petunia hybrida) and banana and plantain (Musa spp.). Activation of endogenous caulimovirid sequences is one of the major impediments to international banana and plantain breeding efforts. Research on endogenous viral sequences in plants is still in its infancy, with little known about the contributions of these sequences to host and virus evolution, nor even a classification system adopted. On a practical note, problems still exist with differentially detecting viral genomic DNA in a host genetic background containing endogenous viral sequences, and a solution to the problem of activation of endogenous viral sequences in banana is still far away.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Caulimoviridae | Geminiviridae | Nicotiana edwardsonii | Petunia hybrida | Musa | Viral evolution | Viral sequences in plants

Genomic Approaches to Discovery of Viral Species Diversity of Non-cultivated Plants
from Ulrich Melcher and Veenita Grover writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Outbreaks of newly emerging and re-emerging animal and plant viruses pose a constant threat to public health and food security and emphasize the need to develop efficient methods for viral detection and identification. Ongoing studies for discovery of viral species in non-cultivated plants utilize genomic approaches for systematic unbiased searches for viruses related to known viruses. Genomic approaches use various combinations of methods for sampling the environment, enriching samples for content of viral genomes, amplifying nucleic acids, and detecting virus-related sequences among the amplified nucleic acids. These methods include particularly array hybridization to macroarrays and microarrays, and various megasequencing approaches. In all cases, relatives of known viruses are discovered. However, the identification of a novel plant virus completely unrelated to known ones remains a challenge. Despite a growing list of viruses infecting wild plants, virus infections in wild plant communities are often underestimated relative to cultivated systems, since viruses in wild plants are generally considered not to harm the host. Viruses may not be explicitly damaging wild plants, but their biodiversity and abundance suggest an important role of these viruses in ecosystems. These roles should not be under-rated just because they are under-researched.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Plant infection | Plant viruses | Plant virology | Plant Virus

Evolutionary Constraints on Emergence of Plant RNA Viruses
from Santiago F. Elena writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Over the recent years, agricultural activity in many regions has been compromised by a succession of devastating epidemics caused by new viruses that switched host species, or by new variants of classic viruses that acquired new virulence factors or changed their epidemiological patterns. Although viral emergence has been classically associated with ecological change or with agronomical practices that brought in contact reservoirs and crop species, it has become obvious that the picture is much more complex, and results from an evolutionary process in which the main players are the changes in ecological factors, the tremendous genetic plasticity of viruses, the several host factors required for virus replication, and a strong stochastic component. A recent review puts the emergence of RNA viruses into the framework of evolutionary genetics and reviews the basic notions necessary to understand emergence, stressing that viral emergence begins with a stochastic process that involves the transmission of a pre-existing viral strain with the right genetic background into a new host species, followed by adaptation to the new host during the early stages of infection.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: RNA viruses | Viral evolution | Virus evolution | Viral emergence | RNA | RNA virus | Viral ecology

Population Dynamics and Genetics of Plant Infection by Viruses
from Fernando García-Arenal and Aurora Fraile writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

During the last thirty years, progress in understanding the mechanistic aspects of virus-plant interactions has been remarkable, notably in aspects such as genome replication, movement within the infected host or pathogenesis and resistance. Progress in understanding the population dynamics and genetics of plant infection by viruses has not been as great. However, understanding the kinetics of plant colonisation and the genetic structure of the within-host virus population is necessary for addressing many issues of plant-virus interaction and of virus evolution. The quantitative aspects of plant infection and colonisation by viruses were mostly addressed during the early period of plant virology, when many detailed studies were published that often incorporated mathematical modelling. These issues have not been thoroughly re-examined using molecular techniques. Recent work has focussed on the description of the genetic structure of the virus population at the organ and the plant level. Data suggest that in spite of huge fecundity, the effective numbers of the within-host virus population may be small due to severe population bottlenecks at each stage of plant infection and colonisation, which results in a spatially structured population.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Plant Pathogens | Plant virology | Plant viruses | Virus plant interactions | Plant virus interactions | Virus evolution | Plant infection

Integrated Control Measures Against Viruses and Their Vectors
from Alberto Fereres and Aranzazu Moreno writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Viruses and their vectors produce severe damage to crops worldwide. Of importance are the strategies and tactics used to manage vectors of plant viruses, with special attention to insects, by far the most important type of vector. The philosophy and principles of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) developed long ago can still provide an effective and sustainable way to manage insect vectors of virus diseases of plants. Preventive strategies such as the development of models that forecast virus disease outbreaks together with host plant resistance, cultural and physical tactics are the most effective ways to control nonpersistently-transmitted viruses. A reduction in vector numbers using conventional systemic insecticides or innundative biological control agents can also provide effective control of persistently-transmitted viruses. Recent advances on understanding of the mode of transmission of plant viruses are also a very promising way to develop molecules to block putative virus binding sites within the vector and to avoid virus retention and transmission. Also, the characterization of aphid's salivary components that is underway may facilitate the development of new tools to interfere with the process of transmission of plant viruses.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Virus | Viruses | Viral vectors | Virus diseases in crops | Virus vectors | Plant viruses | Plant Pathogens

Sustainable Management of Plant Resistance to Viruses
from Benoît Moury, Alberto Fereres, Fernando García-Arenal and Hervé Lecoq writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Although viruses are among the parasites which induce the most severe damages on cultivated plants, few control methods have been developed against them. Notably, no curative methods can be applied against virus diseases in crops. In view of this major economic problem, the development of resistant cultivars has become a critical factor of competitiveness for breeders. However, plant - virus interactions are highly dynamic and the selective pressure exerted by plant resistance frequently favours the emergence of adapted virus populations. Given the scarcity of resistance genes, there is consequently an urgent need to increase the sustainability of these genetic resources. A recent publication reviews the biological mechanisms which allow the emergence of virus populations adapted to plant resistances and how we can use this knowledge to explain the relative durability of different resistance genes, to built predictors of resistance durability and to combine the use of resistances with other control methods to increase their sustainability.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Virus Resistance | Virus | Viruses | Virus diseases in crops | Plant virus interactions | Plant resistance | Resistance genes

Advanced Breeding for Virus Resistance in Plants
from Alain Palloix and Frank Ordon writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Breeding for virus resistance was successful in the past years using conventional breeding methods since many virus resistant cultivars have been delivered for a wide range of crops. Genome mapping provided molecular markers for many resistance loci (i.e., major genes or Quantitative Trait Loci) that were introgressed into cultivars e.g., through backcross breeding schemes. Molecular mapping also delivered much information on the genomic architecture of polygenic and quantitative resistances. However, marker assisted selection for such complex traits is difficult so that the combination of quantitative resistance factors from multiallelic origins commonly relies on sophisticated phenotyping procedures. The cloning of resistance genes and the rapid development of high throughput molecular technologies increased the access to functional markers and multiallelic markers, promoting the applicability of marker assisted selection for complex traits at the whole genome scale in the near future. In parallel, the advances in the identification of molecular determinants of plant/virus interactions and in genetics and evolution of virus populations provide new selection criteria for breeders to choose the most durable resistance genes and gene combinations, so that breeding for durable virus resistance becomes an accessible quest.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Virus Resistance | Quantitative Trait Loci | Resistance genes

Plant Resistance to Viruses Mediated by Translation Initiation Factors
from Olivier Le Gall, Miguel A. Aranda and Carole Caranta writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Host resistance to viruses can show dominant or recessive inheritance. Remarkably, recessive resistance genes are much more common for viruses than for other plant pathogens. Recessive resistances to viruses are especially well documented within the dicotyledons, and have been described for various viruses that belong to very different viral genera, although clearly they predominate among viruses belonging to the genus Potyvirus. The elucidation of the molecular nature of this particular class of resistance genes is recent, but has so far only revealed a group of proteins linked to the translation machinery, chiefly the eukaryotic translation initiation factors (eIF) 4E and 4G. There are specific features and mechanisms of eIF4E- and 4G-mediated resistances to potyviruses and viruses belonging to other genera, such as carmoviruses.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Virus Resistance | Virus | Viruses | Translation Initiation Factors | Potyvirus | eIF | Carmoviruses | Potyviruses | Eukaryotic translation initiation factors

NB-LRR Immune Receptors in Plant Virus Defense
from Patrick Cournoyer and Savithramma P. Dinesh-Kumar writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Resistance genes protect plants from infection by viruses and many other classes of pathogens. The dominant, anti-viral R genes that have been cloned thus far encode NB-LRR immune receptors that detect a single viral protein and trigger defense. Many different types of viral proteins are known to elicit defense by corresponding NB-LRRs. Defense often results in a type of localized programmed cell death at the site of attempted pathogen infection known as the hypersensitive response (HR-PCD), but some NB-LRRs confer resistance to viruses without HR-PCD. The activation of NB-LRRs triggers manifold signaling events including reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, nitric oxide (NO) production, calcium (Ca²⁺) influx, activation of mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and production of the plant hormones salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA), and ethylene. After a successful NB-LRR-mediated defense event, the plant exhibits heightened resistance to future pathogen challenge in a state called systemic acquired resistance.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: NB-LRR Immune Receptors | Plant Virus Defense | Virus | Viruses | Plant Pathogens | NB-LRR | Resistance genes | Plant viruses | Plant virology

Mechanism of Action of Viral Suppressors of RNA Silencing
from József Burgyán writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

RNA silencing is an evolutionarily conserved sequence-specific gene-inactivation system that also functions as an antiviral mechanism in higher plants and insects. To overcome this defence system, viruses encode suppressors of RNA silencing, which can counteract the host silencing-based antiviral process. More than 50 individual viral suppressors have been identified from almost all plant virus genera, underlining their crucial role in successful virus infection. Viral suppressors are considered to be of recent evolution, and they are surprisingly diverse within and across kingdoms, exhibiting no obvious sequence similarity. Virus-encoded silencing suppressors can target several key components in the silencing machinery, such as silencing-related RNA structures and essential effector proteins and complexes. There has been much recent progress in our understanding of the mechanism and function of viral suppressors of antiviral RNA silencing in plants.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications | RNA and the Regulation of Gene Expression

Key words: RNA Silencing | Gene expression | Gene regulation | Viral Suppressors | Virus | Viruses

Virus-encoded Suppressors of RNA Silencing and the Role of Cellular miRNAs in Mammalian Antiviral Immune Responses
from Joost Haasnoot and Ben Berkhout writing in RNA Interference and Viruses
Small RNA-directed silencing mechanisms play important roles in the regulation of eukaryotic gene expression. In plants, insects, nematodes and fungi RNA silencing mechanisms are also involved in innate antiviral defence responses. To counter antiviral RNA silencing, viruses from plants, insects and fungi encode RNA silencing suppressors (RSSs). Recent studies suggest that RNA silencing in mammals, or RNA interference (RNAi), is also involved in antiviral responses. In particular, there is increasing evidence that cellular regulatory microRNAs (miRNAs) have a function in restricting virus replication in mammalian cells. Similar to plant and insect viruses, several mammalian viruses encode RSS factors that inhibit the RNAi mechanism. Several of these suppressors are multifunctional proteins that were previously shown to block innate antiviral immune responses involving the interferon (IFN) pathway.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | RNA Interference and Viruses | RNA and the Regulation of Gene Expression

Key words: miRNAs | Virus-encoded Suppressors | RNA Silencing | Antiviral miRNA | Gene expression | Gene regulation | Small RNA

RNA Silencing and the Interplay Between Plants and Viruses
from Lourdes Fernández-Calvino, Livia Donaire and César Llave writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

In eukaryotes, RNA silencing controls gene expression to regulate development, genome stability and stress-induced responses. In plants, this process is also recognized as a major immune system targeted against plant viruses. Plant viruses stimulate RNA silencing responses though formation of viral RNA with double-stranded features that are subsequently processed into functional small RNAs (sRNAs). Recent studies highlight the complexity of the viral sRNA populations and their potential to associate with multiple silencing effector complexes. This fact has profound implications in the cross-talk interactions between plants and viruses since both virus genomes and host genes are putative targets of viral sRNAs. The concept of RNA silencing is an elegant natural antiviral mechanism in plants. Viral sRNA-mediated regulation of gene expression is important in the frame of compatible interactions between plants and viruses.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications | RNA and the Regulation of Gene Expression

Key words: RNA Silencing | Gene expression | Gene regulation

Functions of Virus and Host Factors During Vector-mediated Transmission
from Stéphane Blanc and Martin Drucker writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Most plant viruses are transmitted by living vectors that transport viruses to a new host plant. One discriminates between circulative transmission, where viruses must pass through the vector interior and are usually inoculated with the saliva on a healthy plant, and non-circulative transmission, where viruses do not need to pass through the vector interior but are directly inoculated from the mouth parts into a new host. Especially transmission of non-circulative viruses has been regarded as a simple process where a vector more or less accidentally transports the virus. However, it becomes more and more evident that this scenario is unlikely, because transmission constitutes a dramatic bottleneck of the virus life cycle, where only very few viral genomes pass to a new host, and where a given virus must do everything to ensure successful transmission. Viruses, also in non-circulative transmission, deliberately manipulate their hosts and vectors in often very unexpected ways to optimise their transmission.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Virus | Viruses | Virology | Plant Pathogens | Plant virology | Virus transmission | Plant viruses

Systemic Movement of Viruses Via the Plant Phloem
from Vicente Pallás, Ainhoa Genovés, M. Amelia Sánchez-Pina and José Antonio Navarro writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

The incorporation of non invasive techniques has allowed remarkable progress in our understanding of the vascular transport of plant viruses. Indeed, approximately seventy-five percent of reports about this topic have been published after the first use of the jellyfish green fluorescent protein (GFP) in plant virology. In the last two decades, a very detailed picture of the viral determinants involved in phloem transport of plant viruses has been obtained. However, we realize that most virus-host interactions are pathosystem-specific and, consequently, the identification of common host factors involved in phloem transport of plant viruses is the exception rather than the rule. In addition, we are still far from obtaining a clear picture of how environmental factors influence the vascular invasion of plants by these pathogens. A recent publication reviews the progress made in understanding the viral determinants involved in vascular transport of viruses and the pathways followed by viruses during systemic movement, and focuses on host and environmental conditions that influence the final distribution of viruses in the plant.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Plant Pathogens | Plant viruses | Green fluorescent protein | GFP | Plant virology | Phloem transport of plant viruses

Plasmodesmata as Active Conduits for Virus Cell-to-Cell Movement
from Lourdes Fernandez-Calvino, Christine Faulkner and Andy Maule writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

It has been known for many decades that viruses need to exploit plasmodesmata as channels of cytoplasmic connectivity through plant cell walls. However, we do not yet understand the molecular mechanisms involved in moving a single infectious entity from cell to cell, although it is clear that virus-encoded movement proteins play a central role. Major progress has been made in identifying movement proteins, their associations with subcellular structures/organelles, and their biochemical properties with respect to nucleic acid-binding and physical associations with host and other viral proteins. These studies reveal a specificity in functional evolution where viruses share some similarities in their movement strategies with near and far phylogenetic groups but show few examples of processes that might apply to all or many individual viruses. Plasmodesmata also provide channels for cellular communication essential for plant growth, development and defense. As such, there is increasing attention aimed at resolving their constituent components necessary for structure and function. With the limited success of genetic screens, proteomic analysis of biochemically-enriched plasmodesmal fractions has also been pursued. Through the identification of plasmodesmal proteins we will have the opportunity to understand how movement proteins bring about the massive changes in the physical behaviour of plasmodesmata that result in the translocation of the macromolecular complexes responsible for virus infectivity.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Plasmodesmata | Plant viruses | Viruses

Replication of Plant RNA Viruses
from Peter D. Nagy and Judit Pogany writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Among plant viruses, the positive-stranded RNA [(+)RNA] viruses are the largest group, and the most widespread. The central step in the infection cycle of (+)RNA viruses is RNA replication, which is carried out by virus-specific replicase complexes consisting of viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, one or more auxiliary viral replication proteins, and a number of co-opted host factors. Viral replicase complexes assemble in specialized membranous compartments in infected cells. Sequestering the replicase complexes is not only helpful for rapid production of a large number of viral (+)RNA progeny, but it also facilitates avoiding recognition by the host¹s anti-viral surveillance system, and it provides protection from degradation of the viral RNA. Successful viral replication is followed by cell-to-cell and long-distance movement throughout the plant, as well as encapsidation of the (+)RNA progeny to facilitate transmission to new plants. A recent review provides an overview of our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms in plant (+)RNA virus replication. Recent significant progress in this research area is based on development of powerful in vivo and in vitro methods, including replicase assays, reverse genetic approaches, intracellular localization studies, genome-wide screens for co-opted host factors and the use of plant or yeast model hosts.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications | RNA and the Regulation of Gene Expression

Key words: Replication | Viruses | Virus Replication | Virus | Plant viruses | Plant Pathogens

Roles of Cis-acting Elements in Translation of Viral RNAs
from W. Allen Miller, Jelena Kraft, Zhaohui Wang and Qiuling Fan writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Cis-acting signals regulate translation of viral RNAs to produce viral proteins at the appropriate levels and timing to maximize virus replication. A recent review describes the cis-acting sequences that achieve this translational control via processes such as cap-dependent translation, leaky scanning to initiate translation at more than one start codon, ribosomal shunting, cap-independent translation initiation controlled from the 5' and/or 3' untranslated region, poly(A) tail-independent translation initiation, stop codon readthrough, and ribosomal frameshifting. Secondary structures and, in some cases, tertiary structures of the RNA sequences control these events and translation events facilitated by the cis-acting signals mesh with the overall replication strategies of the diverse viruses that employ these mechanisms.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

Key words: Cis-acting Elements | Viral RNAs | Virus Replication | Viruses | Virus RNA

The new book on Caliciviruses: Molecular and Cellular Virology edited by Grant S. Hansman, Xi Jason Jiang and Kim Y. Green has been published and is available from library suppliers and bookshops read more ...

Caliciviruses: Molecular and Cellular Virology Edited by: Grant S. Hansman, Xi Jason Jiang and Kim Y. Green ISBN: 978-1-904455-63-9 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: April 2010 Cover: hardback

read more ...

Key words: Calicivirus | Caliciviruses

I am pleased to provide the following excerpt from a book review of Lentiviruses and Macrophages: Molecular and Cellular Interactions:

"excellent and comprehensive ... the reference lists of virtually all chapters are remarkably up-to-date ... this volume is highly recommended to virologists, molecular biologists, immunologists, epidemiologists and infectious disease physicians." from Ulrich Desselberger (Cambridge, UK) writing in Microbiology Today read more ...

Lentiviruses and Macrophages: Molecular and Cellular Interactions Edited by: Moira Desport ISBN: 978-1-904455-60-8 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: March 2010 Cover: hardback "highly recommended" (Microbiology Today)

Key words: Lentivirus | Lentiviruses | Lentiviruses and Macrophages

I am pleased to provide the following excerpt from a book review of RNA Interference and Viruses: Current Innovations and Future Trends:

"This book provides a comprehensive review of the interface between RNA interference and viruses. It lives up to its title by being commendably up-to-date for a multi-author compilation of this type ... excellent and engaging" from Laurence Tiley (University of Cambridge, UK) writing in Microbiology Today read more ...

RNA Interference and Viruses: Current Innovations and Future Trends Edited by: Miguel Angel Martínez ISBN: 978-1-904455-56-1 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: February 2010 Cover: hardback "a comprehensive review" (Microbiology Today)

Key words: RNAi | RNA Interference and Viruses | RNA interference | RNA

Sandra K. Weller (Board of Trustees Distinguished Professor and Chair of Molecular, Microbial and Structural Biology, Dept Microbiology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington Avenue, Farmington, CT , USA) presents a new book on Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology

Alphaherpesviruses are a fascinating group of DNA viruses that includes important human pathogens such as herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), HSV-2, and varicella-zoster virus (VZV): the causative agents of cold sores, genital ulcerous disease, and chickenpox/shingles, respectively. A key attribute of these viruses is their ability to establish lifelong latent infection in the peripheral nervous system of the host. Such persistence requires subversion of the host's immune system and intrinsic antiviral defense mechanisms. Understanding the mechanisms of the immune evasion and what triggers viral reactivation is a major challenge for today's researchers. This has prompted enormous research efforts into understanding the molecular and cellular biology of these viruses.

This up-to-date and comprehensive volume aims to distill the most important research in this area providing a timely overview of the field. Topics covered include: transcriptional regulation, DNA replication, translational control, virus entry and capsid assembly, the role of microRNAs in infection and oncolytic vectors for cancer therapy. In addition there is coverage of virus-host interactions, including apoptosis, subversion of host protein quality control and DNA damage response pathways, autophagy, establishment and reactivation from latency, interferon responses, immunity and vaccine development. Essential reading for everyone working with alphaherpesviruses and of interest to all virologists working on latent infections.

Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology Edited by: Sandra K. Weller ISBN: 978-1-904455-76-9 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: March 2011 Cover: hardback

Key words: Alphaherpesviruses

Carole Caranta, Miguel A. Aranda, Mark Tepfer and J.J. Lopez-Moya (INRA-UR , Génétique et Amélioration des Fruits et Légumes, Montfavet cedex, France;Centro de Edafología y Biología Aplicada del Segura (CEBAS), CSIC, Espinardo, Murcia, Spain;Laboratoire de Biologie Cellulaire, INRA, F Versailles Cedex, France;IBMB, Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG) CSIC-IRTA-UAB, Barcelona, Spain, respectively) present a new book on Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Viruses that infect plants are responsible for reduction in both yield and quality of crops around the world, and are thus of great economic importance. This has provided the impetus for the extensive research into the molecular and cellular biology of these pathogens and into their interaction with their plant hosts and their vectors. However interest in plant viruses extends beyond their ability to damage crops. Many plant viruses, for example tobacco mosaic virus, have been used as model systems to provide basic understanding of how viruses express genes and replicate. Others permitted the elucidation of the processes underlying RNA silencing, now recognised as a core epigenetic mechanism underpinning numerous areas of biology.

This book attests to the huge diversity of research in plant molecular virology. Written by world authorities in the field, the book opens with two chapters on the translation and replication of viral RNA. Following chapters cover topics such as viral movement within and between plants, plant responses to viral infection, antiviral control measures, virus evolution, and newly emerging plant viruses. To close there are two chapters on biotechnological applications of plant viruses. Throughout the book the focus is on the most recent, cutting-edge research, making this book essential reading for everyone, from researchers and scholars to students, working with plant viruses.

Recent Advances in Plant Virology Edited by: Carole Caranta, Miguel A. Aranda, Mark Tepfer and J.J. Lopez-Moya ISBN: 978-1-904455-75-2 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: February 2011 Cover: hardback

Key words: Plant viruses | tobacco mosaic virus

from Sassan Asgari and Christopher S. Sullivan in Insect Virology

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNA molecules that play a central role in the regulation of gene expression impacting many biological processes. These include development, cancer, apoptosis, immunity, and longevity. In addition, accumulating evidence suggest that miRNAs are likely to be involved in host-virus interactions by modulating expression levels of either defence genes or virus genes. Several groups of animal viruses, as well as insect viruses, encode miRNAs that are instrumental in virus biology, including replication, pathogenesis and latency. Of interest is the biogenesis of miRNAs, current approaches to the discovery of miRNAs, their mode of action and strategies for determining viral miRNA function.

Further reading: Insect Virology

Key words: MicroRNA | RNA | miRNAs | Gene expression | Gene regulation | Host-virus interactions

from Jenny S. Cory in Insect Virology

Ecological studies involving insect viruses have centred on baculoviruses, partly because they are associated with population declines of some insect species, and also because they are highly pathogenic to insects, making them ideal candidates for pest control. Recent research has focussed on four main areas; (i) the influence of host condition on resistance to viral infection, (ii) the role and maintenance of baculovirus diversity, (iii) the prevalence of covert infections, and (iv) the elucidation of patterns of host resistance in field populations.

Tritrophic interactions, either via direct effects of plant secondary chemicals or through nutritionally mediated changes in host immunity, can have a significant impact on baculovirus efficacy. Variation within baculovirus populations appears to be ubiquitous, and mixed genotype infections apparently act to generate higher levels of pathogenicity. Covert infections are increasingly being shown to be common in field populations of Lepidoptera but their importance in generating overt baculovirus infections is still unclear. Field studies on forest insects indicate that host resistance varies with fluctuating host density and condition. Synthesis of the impacts of host condition on susceptibility, the role of genetic variability in infection, and of the relationship between overt and covert infection, will promote understanding of the ecological interactions between baculoviruses and natural host populations.

Further reading: Insect Virology

Key words: Baculoviruses | Baculovirus | Tritrophic interactions | Lepidoptera | Baculovirus infection

from Insect Virology

Viruses that are pathogenic to beneficial insects and other arthropods cause millions of dollars of damage to industries such as sericulture, apiculture and aquaculture every year (eg infecting honeybees and silk worms). On the other hand, viruses that are pathogenic to insect pests can be exploited as attractive biological control agents. Another fascinating feature of these viruses is that some, for example baculoviruses, have been commercially exploited for use as gene expression and delivery vectors in both insect and mammalian cells. All of these factors have led to an explosion in the amount of research into insect viruses in recent years generating impressive quantities of information on the molecular and cellular biology of these viruses.

Further reading: Insect Virology

Key words: Insect viruses | Baculoviruses | Aquaculture | Arthropods | RNA viruses | Apiculture | Viral ecology | Sericulture

Sassan Asgari and Karyn N. Johnson (The University of Queensland, Australia) present a new book on Insect Virology
Virus groups covered include: Ascoviruses, Baculoviruses, Densoviruses, Entomopoxviruses, Hytrosaviruses, Iridoviruses, Nudiviruses, Polydnaviruses, Dicistroviruses, Iflaviruses, Nodaviruses, Tetraviruses and Cypoviruses. Several special topics chapters review current developments in insect virology including RNAi, insect antiviral responses, structural comparison of insect RNA viruses, and viral ecology read more ...

Insect Virology Edited by: Sassan Asgari and Karyn N. Johnson ISBN: 978-1-904455-71-4 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: September 2010 Cover: Hardback

Key words: Insect viruses | Ascoviruses | Baculoviruses | Densoviruses | RNA viruses | Entomopoxviruses | Hytrosaviruses | Polydnaviruses | Iridoviruses | Nudiviruses | Dicistroviruses | Iflaviruses | Nodaviruses | Tetraviruses | Cypoviruses | Viral ecology | RNAi

A new publication on EBV: Epstein-Barr Virus: Latency and Transformation was published recently. In this book, expert EBV virologists comprehensively review this important subject from a genetic, biochemical, immunological, and cell biological perspective. Topics include: latent infections, EBV leader protein, EBNA-1 in viral DNA replication and persistence, EBNA-2 in transcription activation of viral and cellular genes, the nuclear antigen family 3 in regulation of cellular processes, molecular profiles of EBV latently infected cells, latent membrane protein 1 oncoprotein, regulation of latency by LMP2A, role of noncoding RNAs in EBV-induced cell growth and transformation and the regulation of EBV latency by viral lytic proteins. This book is essential reading for all EBV virologists as well as clinical and basic scientists working on oncogenic viruses read more ...

Epstein-Barr Virus: Latency and Transformation Edited by: Erle S. Robertson ISBN: 978-1-904455-62-2 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: April 2010 Cover: Hardback read more ...

Key words: Herpesviruses | Herpesvirus | Herpes virus | Herpes viruses | EBV | Epstein-Barr Virus | Infectious mononucleosis | Burkitts lymphoma | Viral latency | Oncogenic viruses | Oncogenic virus

Excerpt from a book review that was published recently:

Retroviruses: Molecular Biology, Genomics and Pathogenesis
ISBN: 978-1-904455-55-4
"impressive work ... a substantial resource to the field ... thorough state of research coverage by leading specialists ... essential reading for veterinary scientists, clinicians, virologists, and graduate students in the field." from SciTech Book News (March 2010) read more ...

Key words: Retroviruses | Retrovirus

Excerpt from a recent book review of Frontiers in Dengue Virus Research.

"a reference for scientists studying arboviruses and infections. Chapters are well written with very little overlap. It would be a good investment for laboratories interested in arboviral diseases" from Doodys (2010) read more ...

Key words: Dengue | DENV

"The use of RNA interference to control gene expression is emerging as an exciting new technology. The potential of this mechanism depends on the ability to find a competent way to deliver the RNA. This compact book reviews all of these issues in a comprehensive manner." from Doodys (2010)

Further reading: RNA Interference and Viruses: Current Innovations and Future Trends

Key words: RNA interference | RNA Interference and Viruses

RNA Interference and Viruses
"a timely and well-compiled book, authored by several distinguished scientists who have made significant contributions to this important area of emerging research. The book consists of 11 chapters dealing with various aspects of the relevance of RNAi to viral infections in plant, insect and mammalian cells ... the book addresses a range of important fundamental issues that may impact on the development of RNAi-based therapies against several human diseases. It provides a solid introduction to the general concepts in the field of RNAi, how viruses modulate RNAi responses as well as issues involved in using RNAi as antiviral therapy. Thus, this book will be useful to a wide range of readership- from basic science students, to RNAi researchers, to virologists, to investors in drug development companies."

from Manjunath N Swamy (Center of Excellence in Infectious Diseases, Texas) writing in Expert Review of Vaccines (2010) read more ...

RNA Interference and Viruses: Current Innovations and Future Trends Edited by: Miguel Angel Martínez ISBN: 978-1-904455-56-1 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: February 2010 Cover: Hardback read more ...

Key words: RNAi | RNAi-based therapies | Antiviral therapy | RNAi research

A new book on Lentiviruses edited by Moira Desport has been has been published today read more ...

Lentiviruses and Macrophages: Molecular and Cellular Interactions Edited by: Moira Desport ISBN: 978-1-904455-60-8 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: March 2010 Cover: Hardback

Key words: Lentiviruses | Lentivirus | Macrophages | Lentiviruses and Macrophages

The new book "Influenza: Molecular Virology" edited by Qinghua Wang and Yizhi Jane Tao has been just been published and is available for immediate dispatch read more ...

Influenza: Molecular Virology Edited by: Qinghua Wang and Yizhi Jane Tao ISBN: 978-1-904455-57-8 Publisher: Caister Academic Press Publication Date: February 2010 Cover: Hardback read more ...

Key words: Influenza | Virology